Benjamin, Walter. “The Task of the Translator.” In
Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida
, edited by Rainer Schulte and John Biguenet, 71-82. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Brenner, Anita.
The Wind That Swept Mexico: The History of the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1942.
With 184 photographs assembled by George R. Leighton. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003.
Campobello, Nellie.
Cartucho; and My mother's hands.
Translated by Doris Meyer and Irene Matthews. Introduction by Elena Poniatowska. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988.
Fuentes, Carlos.
La nueva novela hispanoamericana.
México: J. Mortiz, 1969.
Gonzales, Michael J.
The Mexican Revolution 1910-1940
. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002.
Guzmán, MartÃn Luis.
The Eagle and the Serpent.
Translated by Harriet de Onis. With an Introduction by Federico de Onis. Garden City, NY: Dolphin Books, 1965.
Hernández Chávez, Alicia. Translated by Andy Klatt.
Mexico: A Brief History.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
Knight, Alan.
The Mexican Revolution.
2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Krauze, Enrique.
Mexico, Biography of Power: A History of Modern Mexico, 1810-1996
. Translated by Hank Heifetz. New York: HarperCollins, 1997.
Leal, Luis.
Mariano Azuela.
New York: Twayne Publishers, 1971.
MacLachlan, Colin M., and William H. Beezley.
El gran pueblo: A History of Greater Mexico.
2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Simon & Schuster, 1999.
Robe, Stanley L.
Azuela and the Mexican Underdogs.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.
Chronology of the Mexican Revolution
1876-80; 1884-1911:
Authoritarian rule of Porfirio DÃaz, a period known as the Porfiriato. Although DÃaz remains in power through presidential elections, he runs unopposed in repeatedly rigged elections, in essence reelecting himself seven times. DÃaz undertakes a number of important modernization and liberalization projects in Mexico, but these almost exclusively benefit only the upper classes and the wealthy landowners, creating an ever-increasing gap between rich and poor, between the upper and lower classes, and between cities and rural areas.
November 20, 1910:
Francisco Madero issues the Plan de San Luis PotosÃ, declaring DÃaz's regime illegal and calling for a revolution against him. Uprisings erupt primarily in the northern and the southern states of the country.
April-May, 1911:
Battle of Ciudad Juárez, in which Pascual Orozco and Francisco “Pancho” Villa defeat the Federale army. Crucial to Madero's overthrow of the DÃaz regime.
1911:
DÃaz goes into exile on May 25. Maderoâpromising agrarian and land reformsâis elected as the new president with the support of popular leaders such as Villa (from the north) and Emiliano Zapata (from the south), and with an overwhelming majority.
1911-13:
Madero's presidency, which had begun as a united effort against DÃaz and the Porfiriato, quickly weakens. Madero's refusal to enact agrarian and land reforms causes leaders such as Villa and Zapata to turn against him.
February 9-22, 1913:
Victoriano Huerta stages a military coup against Madero in a series of events known as
La decena trágica
(the tragic ten days), which culminate with Madero and his vice president, Pino Suárez, being murdered, and with Huerta taking over as president and establishing a new dictatorship.
Late February 1913:
Villa, Zapata, Venustiano Carranza (an early supporter of Madero's efforts to overthrow DÃaz), and Ãlvaro Obregón (who had also contributed in the overthrow of DÃaz) join in resistance against Huerta's dictatorship, as they begin fighting against Huerta's army.
October 2, 1913:
Villa's Northern Division captures Torreón (in the state of Coahuila). Villa becomes a civil governor for the first time.
December 8, 1913:
The Battle of Chihuahua (the capital of the state of Chihuahua). The city of Chihuahua falls to Villa and his Northern Division.
July 1914:
After repeated defeats, and given that the United States Navy had seized the seaport of Veracruz to keep Huerta from receiving German arms, Huerta goes into exile. At this point, Carranza takes over as commander in chief of the revolutionary forces.
November 1914:
The group of revolutionary leaders who have just defeated Huertaâmost prominently Villa, Zapata, Obregón, and Carranzaâhold a meeting, known as the
Convención de Aguascalientes
(Aguascalientes Convention), to see if they can settle their differences. However, a rift develops between Villa and Zapata on one side and Carranza and Obregón (i.e., the Constitutionalists) on the other. This leads to intense fighting (often referred to as a civil war) between the various factions.
April 1915:
Villa is defeated in the Battle of Celaya by Obregón. Carranza and the Constitutionalists will continue winning most battles and come to control the majority of the country.
May 1915-May 1920:
Carranza serves as president, during which time he calls for a constitutional convention. Carranza is the first president under the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Carranza continues successfully fighting off the forces of Villa and Zapata.
May 21, 1920:
Carranza is assassinated.
1920-1924:
Obregón serves as president.
July 1920:
Villa comes to terms with Obregón and retires.
July 20, 1923:
Villa is assassinated, shot to death as he was driving his own car in Parral, Chihuahua. The conspirators included Obregón and other of his enemies who feared his return to politics.
Chronology of Mariano Azuela's Life and Work
January 1, 1873:
Born in Lagos de Moreno, in the state of Jalisco.
1892-1899:
Studies medicine at the University of Guadalajara. Also publishes his first literary short texts during this time.
1907:
Publishes first novel,
MarÃa Luisa
.
1908-1912:
Publishes four more novels.
1911:
After Madero's overthrow of DÃaz, briefly holds a political position in Lagos. Is an enthusiastic supporter of Madero's early revolutionary goals and presidency.
1913:
After Madero is assassinated, joins the resistance against Huerta's forces.
October 1914:
Joins the army of Julián Medina, one of Villa's generals, as his medical officer. Travels with Medina's band during their battles; begins writing what would become the text for
The Underdogs
.
April-October 1915:
When Villa is defeated by Obregón (in the Battle of Celaya), Medina withdraws to Lagos; Azuela tends to the wounded. Still pursued by Carranza's forces, Azuela flees with a group to Tepatlitán and then CuquÃo. Attacked in the canyons of Juchipila, the group Azuela is in withdraws to Aguascalientes and then Chihuahua. The advance of Carranza's troops forces Azuela to flee to Ciudad Juárez and then to take refuge across the border, in El Paso, Texas.
October-November 1915:
Finishes composing
The Underdogs
and publishes it in serialized installments in the newspaper
El Paso del Norte
.
December 1915:
The Underdogs
is published in the United States by the very small Paso del Norte press. The novel goes almost entirely unnoticed.
1916:
Returns to Guadalajara. Moves with his family to Mexico City. Resumes medical practice and begins a prolific writing career.
1920:
After introducing numerous changes and rewrites, Azuela publishes another small edition of
The Underdogs,
this time in Mexico City. Once again, it goes mostly unnoticed by readers and critics.
1924-25:
With the fighting of the revolution ended,
The Underdogs
finally starts receiving critical and public recognition and acclaim, and is toutedâin Mexico and abroadâfrom this point on as a masterpiece and as one of the most important novels of the Mexican Revolution.
1917-49:
Publishes eleven more novels and receives numerous accolades, becoming one of Mexico's best-known and most important novelists of the twentieth century.
March 1, 1952:
Dies of heart failure.
1955-58: Three more of his novels are published posthumously.
PART 1
I
“I'm telling you that's no animal. Listen to how Palomo
1
is barking . . . That must be a man.”
The woman stared out into the darkness of the Sierra.
“Who cares, even if they are Federales?”
2
replied a man, sitting on his haunches in a corner and eating, a small pan in his right hand and three tortillas in the other.
But the woman did not answer him. Her senses were concentrated outside their little house.
The sound of hoofs against stony ground was heard nearby, and Palomo started barking with more anger.
“Either way, it'd be good for you to hide, Demetrio.”
Indifferent, the man finished eating. Then he grabbed a pitcher, raised it with two hands, and guzzled down the water. Finally he stood up.
“Your rifle is under the bedding,” the woman said in a very soft voice.
The small room was lit by a tallow candle. A yoke, a plow, a goad, and other tilling gear were resting in a corner. Ropes holding up an old adobe molding, serving as a bed, hung from the ceiling. A child lay on faded, torn blankets, sleeping.
Demetrio grabbed his cartridge belt, strapped it around his waist, and picked up his rifle. Tall, robust, with a bright, beardless red face, he wore a coarse cotton shirt and trousers, a wide-brimmed straw sombrero, and leather sandals.
He stepped out slowly, deliberately, disappearing into the impenetrable darkness of the night.
Palomo, enraged, had jumped over the fence of the corral. All of a sudden a shot was heard, and the dog let out a muffled moan and stopped barking altogether.
A few men on horseback appeared, shouting and cursing. Two dismounted while another stayed with the animals.
“Women, come on out here. Bring us somethin' for dinner! Eggs, milk, frijoles, whatever you have, we're starvin'.”
“Damned Sierra! The devil's the only one who wouldn't get lost out there!”
“He would get lost, Sergeant, if he was as drunk as you.”
One of the men wore galloons on his shoulders, the other red stripes on his sleeves.
“Where are we, little lady? Well, in here all by herself! Is there anyone else in this here house?”
“So what about that light? And that little kid? Little lady, we want to eat, real quicklike! Are ya comin' out or do we make ya come out?”
“You vile men, you've killed my dog! What harm in the world did my poor little Palomo do to you?”
The woman came back dragging her very white, heavy dog behind her, its eyes already glossed over, its body limp.
“Oh my, look at those plump, rosy cheeks, Sergeant! My dear, don't be angry, I swear I'll turn your house into a dovecote as a namesake to your dog.
3
But for God's sake:
Don't look at me all irate . . .
Don't be angry no more . . .
Look at me sweetly,
Oh, light of my eyes . . .
the officer finished singing in a harsh voice.
“What is this ranchito called, señora?” the sergeant asked.
“Limón,” the woman answered hoarsely, without any fear in her voice, and turned to fan the coals of the fire and to reach for more wood.
“So this is Limón? Land of the famous Demetrio MacÃas! Didya hear that, Lieutenant? We're in Limón.”
“In Limón, huh? Oh well, what do I care! You know, Sergeant, if I'm headin' to hell, may as well go now, since I got me a good horse anyway. But wouldya look at those little rosy cheeks on that brunette! Tha's the most perfect pair of ripe red apples to bite right into I've ever seen . . .”
“You must know that bandit MacÃas, señora. I was in the penitentiary with 'im in Escobedo.”
4
“Sergeant, bring me a bottle of tequila. I've decided to spend the night in the kind company of this little brunette here. The colonel? What, why in the world are you speakin' to me about the colonel at these hours? He can go straight to hell as far as I'm concerned! And if he gets upset, as far as I care . . . pop! Go on, Sergeant, tell the corporal to unsaddle the horses and prepare dinner. I'm stayin' right here. Listen, little darlin', you let my sergeant fry up the eggs and warm up the tortillas, and you come 'ere with me. Look, this little wallet of mine is stuffed with bills just for you. It'll be my pleasure. Just imagine! I'm just a little bit drunk tha's why, and tha's why my voice is a little bit hoarse, too. I left half my gullet in Guadalajara, and I've been spittin' the other half all the way up here! So what can you do? It'll be my pleasure. Sergeant, my bottle, my bottle of tequila. But darlin', you're too far away. Come over 'ere, have a drink. What d'ya mean no? Are you afraid of . . . your husband . . . or whatever he is? If he's hidin' in some hole tell 'im to come out. As far as I care . . . pop! Let me assure you I'm not afraid of no rats.”
A white silhouette suddenly filled the dark opening of the doorway.
“Demetrio MacÃas!” the sergeant exclaimed, aghast, taking several steps back.