America At War - Concise Histories Of U.S. Military Conflicts From Lexington To Afghanistan
Authors: Terence T. Finn
Tags: #History, #Asia, #Afghanistan, #Military, #United States, #eBook
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Copyright © 2014 by Terence T. Finn
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eBook ISBN 978-1-101-63012-9
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Finn, Terence T.
America at war : concise histories of U.S. military conflicts from Lexington to Afghanistan / Terence T. Finn.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-425-26858-2
1. United States—History, Military. I. Title.
E181.F48 2014
355.00973—dc23
2013032320
PUBLISHING HISTORY
Berkley Caliber trade paperback edition / January 2014
Cover design by Jason Gill.
Interior maps by Eureka Cartography, Berkeley, CA.
Interior text design by Laura K. Corless.
Title page art © iStockphoto.com/pixhook.
While the author has made every effort to provide accurate telephone numbers and Internet addresses at the time of publication, neither the author nor the publisher is responsible for errors, or for changes that occur after publication. Further, the publisher does not have any control over and does not assume any responsibility for author or third-party websites or their content.
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To JMP, with my love
Running a war seems to consist in making plans and then ensuring that all those destined to carry it out don’t quarrel with each other instead of the enemy.
—F
IELD
M
ARSHAL
L
ORD
A
LANBROOKE
War Diaries 1939–1945
Yet the experiences of these masses will have taught the United States for the future that the business of war cannot be learnt in a few months, and that in a crisis lack of this experience costs streams of blood.
—F
IELD
M
ARSHAL
VON
H
INDENBURG
The Great War
War, moreover, displays as do few other undertakings the grim and the great in human nature. It produces death and destruction while generating innovation in organization, technology, ethics, and law. It unleashes cruelty and exposes cowardice while inspiring camaraderie and courage. It produces regimentation, obedience, and a concentration on self-preservation even as it cultivates leadership, instills a sense of duty, and honors principles worth dying for.
—P
ETER
B
ERKOWITZ
The Wall Street Journal
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
War is a nasty business. As one who has seen combat in several wars, I can say that with certainty. Yet despite the death and destruction it brings—even when fought for worthwhile reasons—war has been a constant in mankind’s journey through time.
Certainly that is true in America’s case. The history of the United States reveals armed conflict to be a significant presence, a theme throughout. Indeed, our country was established by musket and cannon. In 1776 men died so that a new and free nation might come to be. Let’s remember that before George Washington became president of the United States, he was commander of the Continental Army, a general leading troops into battle.
Like all generals that followed, Washington understood that commanding an army in the field was in part a management job. Soldiers had to be recruited, trained, and equipped, and then deployed. A plan of battle needed to be devised, then executed, and invariably adjusted, during all of which time supplies had to flow continuously to the troops. Of course, setbacks had to be endured, and once victory had been achieved, the troops had to be kept productively occupied. Moreover, throughout the campaign, allies needed to be accommodated and political leaders informed such that they remained confident of success. None of this was, or is, easy. What’s remarkable is that over time the United States has had extremely capable field commanders. Some are well known. Ulysses S. Grant and George Patton come to mind. Others less so. Daniel Morgan, George Meade, and William Simpson are three who led Americans into battle without becoming household names.
If one wishes to understand American history, knowledge of our country’s military past is essential.
America at War
provides such knowledge. Well researched and remarkably complete, the book tells what happened and why in the twelve major wars the United States has fought. I believe this book should be essential reading for students of U.S. history and for military officers around the world.
Throughout our nation’s history there have been memorable moments on the fields of battle: Winfield Scott’s assault on Mexican troops at the Convent of San Mateo, Joshua Chamberlain’s bayonet charge down Little Round Top in 1863, the Americans at Utah and Omaha Beaches in 1944, the U.S. Air Cavalry at the Ia Drang Valley in Vietnam, and the Thunder Run of American armored units through Baghdad in 2003. All of these, and more, receive proper attention in Terence Finn’s book.
The author also gives appropriate attention to my sister services, the U.S. Navy and the United States Air Force. His book covers the rich heritage of naval combat in the War of 1812, notes the little-noticed contribution of American sailors in the First World War, emphasizes the victories at sea in the second great war, and, appropriately, makes mention of the navy’s contributions to the Coalition’s success in removing Saddam Hussein’s troops from Kuwait in 1991.
America at War
also describes the role the air force has played in combat around the world. Noteworthy in my mind, and Finn’s, are the clashes of F-86s against MiG-15s in the skies above the Yalu River during the Korean War, usually resulting in American victories. Noteworthy too—if less successful—were the F-105 strikes against targets in and around Hanoi during the Vietnam War.
I realize I’ve not mentioned the United States Marines, so let me simply say that they are a magnificent combat organization and that their exploits receive due mention in
America at War
. Their role in the march to Baghdad during the Iraq War is one truly memorable example of their skill as warriors.
Of course, despite a preponderance of success, Americans in battle on occasion have fared poorly. Here too Finn points out the results, and appropriately so. He mentions the failure at Queenstown Heights in 1812, Hooker’s dismal showing at Chancellorsville, and others, including what must rank as the worst performance of any American field army: the rout of U.S. forces in Korea by the Chinese in 1950.
Then too there are moments in our military history that can be deemed obscure, worthy of mention if only to reveal the scope and depth of combat American style. The author mentions several in
America at War
. My two favorites are: (1) the use by the navy of a single fourteen-inch battleship gun mounted on a railroad car to serve well inland as heavy artillery during World War I, and (2) the amphibious landings in Southern France—Operation Dragoon—by the U.S. Seventh Army just two months after the Allied invasion of Normandy in June of 1944. These episodes, and others like them, are rarely recalled, yet they too are part of our military heritage.
***
Educators today often lament the lack of knowledge of history among Americans, particularly young Americans. They, teachers and scholars, want our citizens to be more aware of the individuals and events that comprise the American experience. In politics, economics, diplomacy, art, and science the study of America’s past is an intellectually rewarding endeavor, relevant to understanding where our country is today and where it might be headed. I would add that part of the past that needs also to be examined is the story of America’s fighting men and women. A good place to start would be this admirable work.
General Barry R. McCaffrey, U.S. Army (Ret.)
Alexandria, Virginia
June 1, 2013
PREFACE
Not surprisingly, American history is multidimensional. There is diplomatic history, literary history, political history, economic history, and so on. There is also military history, a subset that, in fact, receives considerable attention in the publishing world. While scholars of the military arts produce solid works, popular histories tend to focus on specific battles (such as Gettysburg) or certain campaigns (such as the one in Normandy in 1944) or individual wars (such as the War of 1812). What seems to be missing are books that cover in one volume the major wars the United States has fought.
Hence, this book.
By providing brief narrative accounts of these conflicts, this book’s goal is to enable the reader to understand what happened in each war and why the battles at such places as Saratoga, Antietam, Manila Bay, and Midway were pivotal events in the history of the United States. These battles, as well as others, affected the outcome of conflicts which, in turn, shaped the political and economic landscape America confronted once the shooting ceased. The outcomes and the circumstances by which they came about matter—not just because the world became a different place. The outcomes also matter because the violence inherent in warfare results in the loss of life, often in great numbers.
In recounting events that occurred, each chapter in this book speaks to death and destruction. In some cases, casualties from a battle can only be approximate. In other cases the number can be precisely stated. In both instances, the calculations too easily become simply statistics. The reckoning of each individual lost represents a human being who, had he or she survived, might have brought hope, kindness, love, or security to those left behind.
Most certainly war is a human tragedy. Yet, given its frequency, war appears to be part and parcel of the American journey. Sometimes, despite the killing, armed conflict is conducted for a noble or worthwhile purpose, with results that make the world a safer or more just place in which to live. This author would contend that most of the wars engaged in by the United States seem to fit in this category.
The book has twelve chapters. Why these wars and not others? The twelve were selected because they met the following criteria: (1) the war needed to be large in scale, involve substantial combat, and engage a considerable portion of U.S. armed forces; (2) the enemy needed to be a sovereign state (here, Afghanistan is perhaps the exception); (3) the war had to involve the United States of America when constituted as a nation; and (4) the outcome, whether the United States won or lost, had to be significant in terms of influencing America’s future.
Employing these criteria, the 1898 war with Spain makes the list. So does the First World War and the war in Vietnam. The Cold War, the French and Indian War, and the incursion into Panama do not. By these criteria, starting in 1775, the United States has gone to war twelve times.
The book provides a brief, easy-to-read account of each of the twelve wars. The chapters may serve to refresh one’s awareness of what happened or may offer an introduction to the conflict. In either case, the hope is to provide the reader who may or may not be familiar with American history with an understanding of what took place on those occasions when the United States went to war.
To assist the reader, maps drawn by Stace Wright of Eureka Cartography are provided at the beginning of each chapter. Given that war has a geographic dimension, the maps are included in order to help the reader follow the flow of events.
The accounts of the wars related in this book are neither revisionist in character nor radically new in interpretation. Rather, they are consistent with traditional scholarship, providing narratives with which most historians would concur. If standard fare, the accounts nevertheless hopefully convey much of the drama that unfolded once U.S. citizens answered their country’s call to arms.
Should the reader seek more knowledge about and greater insight into the conflicts described herein, a list of “Selected Readings” is provided. Organized by chapter, these additional works are worth examining. All are recommended. Together they form the research on which this book is based.
Producing
America at War
required more than a manuscript. Essential to the endeavor were the considerable talents of my Berkley Publishing Group editor, Natalee Rosenstein, and editorial assistant, Robin Barletta. For their patience and hard work I am most grateful. The artistic contributions of Jason Gill (cover) and Laura K. Corless (interior design) speak for themselves. This book would not be complete without the maps expertly created by Stace Wright of Eureka Cartography. Nor would it read as well were it not for the skill of Marla Handelman. For his counsel and support, I thank my friend Richard Kalter. My agent, Robert G. Diforio, who like several of the generals in the narratives that follow, is an expert in his craft. I am indeed appreciative for his guidance and tenacity.
The origin of
America at War
lies with my novel
To Begin Again
. That story takes place during the Korean War. It is about a university professor who, recalled to the air force in 1951, goes to Korea, where he flies F-86 Sabre jets in combat high above the Yalu River. In order to provide context with which to better understand and appreciate the events recounted in the novel, the book begins with a summary of the war. As she read and typed the piece into her computer, my wife, Joyce Purcell, concluded that the summary was most helpful. She then suggested a book containing similar narratives that covered all the major wars fought by the United States. Such a book, she said, might well be read by those who do not study history but have a genuine interest in reading a concise account of one or more of America’s wars from 1775 to the present. Her suggestion—as well as her editing skills and encouragement—caused this book to be written.