Belisarius: The Last Roman General (54 page)

Matasuintha
       Daughter of Amalasuintha and granddaughter of Theoderic the Great, after seizing the Gothic crown in 536, Witigis married her in an attempt to fully legitimise his rule. After his defeat, she was married to Germanus prior to his attempt to conquer Italy, but became a widow upon his premature death.

Mundus
       Mundus was related to the Gepid noble families. In 529, after service with the Goths under Theoderic the Great, he offered to serve Justinian and was appointed
magister militum per Illyricum.
He showed himself a capable general and his presence deterred barbarian attacks across the frontier. During the Nika Riots he was by chance in Constantinople and, along with Belisarius, took part in the slaughter in the Hippodrome which ended the rebellion. In 535 he invaded Dalmatia – then held by the Goths – defeated them and took Salona. In the following year, a Gothic force invaded Dalmatia and, in a battle near Salona, Mundus’ son Mauricius was killed. Infuriated by the loss of his son, Mundus defeated the Goths but was himself killed. His death resulted in renewed barbarian attacks across the Danube.

Narses the Eunuch
       An Armenian, he rose high in power during the reigns of Justin and Justinian. Sent to Italy with reinforcements for Belisarius, he was convinced by others that he was better suited to command. Frictions with Belisarius led to Narses’ recall. He was later appointed to lead the final assault upon Gothic Italy, following Belisarius’ recall to Constantinople.

Narses
       An Armenian, brother of Aratius and Isaac. With Aratius defeated Belisarius in an unnamed battle in the east before defecting to the Byzantines and serving alongside Belisarius.

Photius
       Son of Antonina and stepson of Belisarius, he gave his loyalty to Belisarius rather than his mother. Accompanying Belisarius and Antonina in the invasion of Italy, he was aware of the affair between Antonina and Theodosius. Having reported the affair to Belisarius, he arrested Theodosius and confiscated his money. However Theodora had Photius arrested and tortured to reveal Theodosius’ whereabouts. Photius escaped from Constantinople and lived the rest of his life as a monk in Jerusalem.

Pitzas
       A Goth, given control of western Samnium – possibly by Witigis. Prior to Belisarius’ invasion, he surrendered to Belisarius and was given a few troops with which to maintain control of the region for the empire.

Principius
       A
bucellanus
of Belisarius. Along with Tarmatus he requested permission to lead the infantry at the Battle of Rome, as Belisarius had decided not to allow them to enter the battle. Following the rout of the cavalry, the majority of the infantry also fled but a core of infantry around Principius and Tarmatus held firm and by their sacrifice enabled the cavalry to escape. Principius and Tarmatus both died.

Procopius
       A native of Caesarea in Palestine, he died circa 565. Procopius was Belisarius’
assessor
(legal advisor) and private secretary. He wrote an account of the wars, much of which he witnessed first hand.

Pudentius
       A citizen of Tripoli in Africa, he organised a rebellion against Vandal rule prior to Belisarius’ invasion of Africa.

Solomon
       Belisarius’
domesticus,
he fought at Ad Decimum and Tricamerum before being given the majority of Belisarius’
comitatus
and left in Africa to crush the Moorish uprising. In his first battle against the Moors he dismounted his cavalry in order to attack the enemy, who had surrounded themselves with camels to frighten the Byzantine horses. In the second, he managed to manoeuvre troops around the rear of the Moors’ camp and so caused panic – according to Procopius, the Moors lost 50,000 casualties. Unable to prevent the troops from mutiny, he was nevertheless held in such awe that the mutinous troops could not bring themselves to assassinate him. After Belisarius’ had returned and dispersed the rebels, Solomon retained control until the arrival of Germanus, who finally crushed the mutiny.

Sittas
       Roman general, in 528 appointed first
magister militum per Armemam,
led the first campaigns in which Belisarius was given high command. Defeated, he continued to serve in the east until killed in battle in 539.

Stotzas
       One of Martinus’
comitatus,
he was elected leader of the African mutiny following Belisarius’ recall from the province. Laid siege to Carthage but at news of Belisarius’ arrival he broke camp and fled.

Tarmatus
       A
bucellanus
of Belisarius, along with Principius he requested permission to lead the infantry at the Battle of Rome, as Belisarius had decided not to allow them to enter the battle. Following the rout of the cavalry, the majority of the infantry also fled but a core of infantry around Principius and Tarmatus held firm and by their sacrifice enabled the cavalry to escape. Principius and Tarmatus both died.

Theodahad
       Nephew of Theoderic the Great, after the death of Athalaric in 534 Amalasuintha, in an attempt to maintain control, asked him to be the next king but to allow her to maintain her power. Agreeing to her conditions, he was crowned king but he ignored their agreement and had her imprisoned and killed. His actions now determined Justinian on invading Italy. Following Belisarius’ successes early in the campaign, and the capture of Naples, the Goths turned against Theodahad, elected Witigis, and Theodahad was killed.

Theoderic the Great
       King of the Goths and Italians (493-526).

Theodorus the
       General and astute politician, he was elected leader of the African mutineers in Carthage but managed to persuade Solomon, Martinus and Procopius that he had had no choice in the matter and arranged for their escape to Sicily. He refused to surrender the city to Stotzas prior to Belisarius’ return. Along with Ildiger, he was left in command of Carthage when Belisarius returned to Sicily.

Theodosius
       Adopted son of Belisarius and Antonina. Alleged to have been having an affair with his (adoptive) mother throughout the African campaign, in Sicily he was betrayed to Belisarius, who ordered his death. Theodosius fled to Ephesus before Antonina convinced Belisarius of his innocence and he was told to return. However, he refused until Photius (Antonina’s son) was no longer in the vicinity. Worried by Antonina’s outrageous displays of affection, he again fled to Ephesus. When Belisarius left for the east, Theodosius returned but Photius informed Belisarius, who ordered Photius to kill him. He was only arrested, and later Theodora tortured Photius to learn of his whereabouts. Returned to Antonina, shortly afterwards contracted dysentery and died.

Tzazon
       Brother of Gelimer, he was sent to Sardinia when news of Godas’ rebellion reached Gelimer. Retaking the island, he missed the Battle of Ad Decimum but returned in time for the Battle of Tricamerum, where he was killed.

Uraias
       Nephew of Witigis, served faithfully until Witigis was captured by Belisarius. Offered the crown, he refused and instead recommended Ildibadus, who was subsequently crowned. However, shortly after he fell out with Ildibadus and the king had him killed.

Vigilius
       Pope (551-555) Allegedly appointed by the order of Theodora, he came into increasing conflict with Justinian over the debate of the ‘Three Chapters’, at the end of which he was banished to an island in the Sea of Marmara.

Vitalius
       
Magister militum per Illyricum;
first served in the Balkans before joining Belisarius in Italy. Later in the campaign he was paired with John nephew of Vitalianus, possibly in an attempt to control John and restrict his tendency to ignore Belisarius’ orders. After Belisarius’ recall, he was the only general credited by Procopius with taking an active role against the Goths. During Belisarius’ second campaign in Italy, an attempt by the Goths to attack him resulted in them suffering extremely high casualties as, in combination with Thurimuth, he trapped the pursuing troops in a series of devastating ambushes.

Witigis
       King of the Goths (536-540).

Select Bibliography

Although there has been a lot written about Justinian and his reign, there has been surprisingly little about Belisarius himself. Below is a list of books and articles that are relevant to the life of Belisarius. The majority have their own bibliographies for anyone wishing to delve further into the period.

Primary Sources (by translator)

Bosworth, C E,
The History of al-Tabari: Vol. 5; The Sasamds, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids and the Yemen
(Albany, 1999).

Dennis, G T,
Maurice’s Strategikon
(Philadelphia, 1984).

Dennis, G T,
Three Byzantine Military Treatises,
(Washington DC, 1985).

Dewing, H B,
Procopius: History of the Wars,
in 5 volumes (London, 2001).

Dewing, H B,
Procopius: Secret History (Anekdota)
(London, 2004).

Frendo, J D,
Agathias: The Histories
(Berlin, 1975).

Jeffreys, E, Jeffreys, M., and Scott, R,
The Chronicle of John Malalas: a Translation
(Melbourne, 1986).

Milner, N P,
Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science
(Liverpool, 1996).

Mommsen, T,
Marcellmus Comes: Additions to the Chronicle
(1894), available online at
http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinusl.html
.

Thomson, R W,
The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos,
in 2 volumes (Liverpool, 1999).

Secondary Sources

Bishop, M C and Coulston, J C N,
Roman Military equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome
(Exeter, 2006).

Boardman, J, Griffin, J, and Murray, O,
The Oxford History of the Roman World
(Oxford, 2001).

Boss,
R Juastinian’s Wars: Belisarius, Narses and the Reconquest of the West
(Stockport, 1993).

Burns, T S,
Barbarians within the Gates of Rome,
(Bloomington, 1994).

Bury, J B, ‘History of the Later Roman Empire’ (1958), available online at
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/ Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/home.html

Cameron, Averil,
Procopius and the Sixth Century
(California, 1985).

Cameron, Averil,
The Later Roman Empire
(London, 1993).

Coulston, J C, ‘Later Roman Armour 3rd-6th Centuries’,
in Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies,
1 (1990), pp. 139-160.

Farrokh, K,
Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War
(Oxford, 2007).

Farrokh, K,
Sassanian Elite Cavalry: 224-642
(Oxford, 2005).

Fossier, R, (ed),
The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 350-950
(London, 1989).

Gibbon, E,
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
in 4 volumes (Liverpool, 1861).

Goldsworthy, Adrian,
In the Name of Rome
(London, 2003).

Greatrex, G,
Rome and Persia at War 502-532
(Francis Cairns, 1998).

Heather, Peter,
The Fall of the Roman Empire
(London, 2005).

James, Simon,
Excavations at Dura-Europos 1928-1937: Final Report VII; the Arms and Armour, and other Military Equipment
(London, 2004).

Jones, A H M,
The Later Roman Empire: 284-602
(Oxford, 1986).

Kennedy, David, ‘The East’, in John Wacher, (ed),
The Roman World
(London, 1990), pp. 266-308.

Ladner, Gerhardt B, ‘On Roman attitudes towards Barbarians in Late Antiquity’, in
Viator, 1
(1976), pp. 1-26.

Lillington-Martin, C, ‘Archaeological and Ancient Literary Evidence for a Battle near Dara Gap, Turkey, AD 530: Topography, Texts and Trenches’, in A S Lewin and P Pellegrini (eds),
The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest
(BAR, 2007).

MacDowall, S,
Late Roman Infantryman: 236-565 AD
(Oxford, 1994).

MacDowall, S,
Late Roman Cavalryman: 236-565 AD
(Oxford, 1995).

MacDowall, S,
Germanic Warrior: AD 236-568
(Oxford, 1996).

Mahon, Lord,
The Life of Belisanus: the Last Great General of Rome
(London, 1829; reprinted with a new foreword by J Coulston, Yardley, 2006).

Martindale, J R,
The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire,
volume Ilia (Cambridge, 1992).

Moorhead, J,
Theoderic in Italy
(Oxford, 1997).

Nicolle, D,
Romano-Byzantine Armies: 4th-9th Centuries
(Oxford, 1992).