Between Flesh and Steel (35 page)

5
. Although first used in obstetrics, chloroform was widely held to be dangerous because it reduced the pain that was “natural” to childbirth. It was further believed that chloroform induced sexual fantasies when administered to women. These objections came to an end when Queen Victoria was administered chloroform in childbirth in 1853.

6
. John A. Shepard, “The Smart of the Knife: Early Anesthesia in the Services,”
Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
131, no. 2 (June 1985): 109–12.

7
. Ibid.

8
. Aaron M. Schwartz, “The Historical Development of Methods of Hemostasis,”
Surgery
44, no. 3 (September 1958): 608.

9
. Ibid.

10
. Ibid., 609.

11
. Chamberlain, “History of Military Medicine,” 248.

12
. Robert Wagner and Benjamin Slivko, “History of Nonpenetrating Chest Trauma and Its Treatment,”
Minnesota Medical Journal
37, no. 4 (April 1988): 301.

13
. Theodore E. Woodward, “The Public's Debt to Military Medicine,”
Military Medicine
146 (March 1981): 172.

14
. Chamberlain, “History of Military Medicine,” 249.

15
. Peter Aldea and William Shaw, “The Evolution of the Surgical Management of Severe Lower Extremity Trauma,”
Clinics in Plastic Surgery
13, no. 4 (October 1986): 556.

16
. Ibid.

17
. McGrew,
Encyclopedia of Medical History
, 34; and Crissey and Parish, “Wound Healing,” 4.

18
. Forrest, “Development of Wound Therapy,” 271.

19
. Kirkup, “History and Evolution,” 284.

20
. Wangensteen et al., “Some Highlights,” 108.

21
. Lewis N. Cozen, “Military Orthopedic Surgery,”
Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research
200 (November 1985): 52.

22
. Ibid.

23
. Inspector General Hercule Sieur, “Tribulations of the Medical Corps of the French Army from Its Origin to Our Own Time,”
Military Surgeon
64, no. 6 (June 1929): 843.

24
. Ibid., 851.

25
. Garrison,
Notes on the History
, 162.

26
. A. G. Chevalier, “Hygienic Problems of the Napoleonic Armies,”
Ciba Symposium
3 (1941–1942): 975.

27
. Colin Jones,
The Charitable Imperative: Hospitals and Nursing in Ancien Régime and Revolutionary France
(London: Routledge, 1989), 228.

28
. After the battle of Marengo in 1800, France signed a treaty with Austria and England in 1802. Napoleon was regarded in France as a peacemaker, and the military hospitals were dismantled. Shortly after the demobilization of the hospitals began in 1803, the War of the Third Coalition broke out. Napoleon won so quickly at the battle of Austerlitz that the defects of the dismantled military medical system were not appreciated, and the dismantlement of the hospitals was allowed to continue.

29
. Garrison,
Notes on the History
, 169.

30
. A similar outbreak of ophthalmia among French troops in Syria six hundred years earlier had crippled the army and forced a retreat. Given the prevalence of hospitals dedicated to treating blind Crusaders during the Middle Ages, it seems reasonable that ophthalmia presented a serious disease threat to these armies.

31
. Garrison,
Notes on the History
, 166.

32
. For cold injury rates in all the wars from the Napoleonic Wars to World War I, see Charles Schechter and Irving A. Sarot, “Historical Accounts of Injuries Due to Cold,”
Surgery
63, no. 3 (March 1968): 535.

33
. Blaine Taylor, “Some Medical-Historical Aspects of the Later Napoleonic Wars, 1812–1815,”
Maryland State Medical Journal
, December 1978, 27.

34
. Launcelotte Gubbins, “The Life and Work of Jean Dominique, First Baron Larrey,”
Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
22 (1914): 188.

35
. Sieur, “Tribulations of the Medical Corps,” 855.

36
. Wangensteen et al., “Wound Management,” 224.

37
. Chevalier, “Hygienic Problems,” 979.

38
. Wangensteen et al., “Some Highlights,” 224.

39
. Lyman A. Brewer, “Baron Dominique Jean Larrey (1766–1842): Father of Modern Military Surgery, Innovator, Humanist,”
Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery
92, no. 6 (December 1986): 1097.

40
. E. Robert Wiese, “Larrey: Napoleon's Chief Surgeon,”
Annals of Medical History
1 (July 1929): 444.

41
. These wagons were called
ourgons
.

42
. Wiese, “Larrey.”

43
. Taylor, “Some Medical-Historical Aspects,” 27.

44
. David M. Vess, “French Military Medicine during the Revolution,” PhD diss., University of Alabama, 1965, 118–19. This outstanding research work deserves to be published.

45
. F. M. Richardson, “Wellington, Napoleon, and the Medical Services,”
Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
131, no. 1 (1985): 9–10.

46
. Wiese, “Larrey,” 44.

47
. Garrison,
Notes on the History
, 164.

48
. Chevalier, “Hygienic Problems,” 976.

49
. Richard L. Blanco, “The Development of British Military Medicine, 1793–1814,”
Military Affairs
38, no. 1 (February 1974): 5.

50
. Robert M. Feibel, “What Happened at Walcheren: The Primary Medical Sources,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
42 (1968): 64.

51
. Taylor, “Retrospect of Naval and Military Medicine,” 622.

52
. Garrison,
Notes on the History
, 167.

53
. Taylor, “Retrospect of Naval and Military Medicine,” 622.

54
. Garrison,
Notes on the History
, 167.

55
. Taylor, “Retrospect of Naval and Military Medicine,” 622.

56
. Ibid.

57
. Blanco, “Development of British Military Medicine,” 9.

58
. G. A. Kempthorne, “The Medical Department of Wellington's Army,”
Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
, February–March 1930, 214.

59
. Richard L. Blanco,
Wellington's Surgeon General: Sir James McGrigor
(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1974), 117–19.

60
. Kempthorne, “Medical Department,” 214.

61
. J. M. Matheson, “Comments on the Medical Aspects of the Battle of Waterloo, 1815,”
Medical History
10 (1966): 205.

62
. Blanco,
Wellington's Surgeon General
, 147.

63
. A. Campbell Derby, “The Military Surgeon—Not Least in the Crusade,”
Canadian Journal of Surgery
28, no. 2 (1985): 183.

64
. M. K. H. Crumplin, “Surgery at Waterloo,”
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
81, no. 1 (January 1988): 38. Also by the same author, see “Vascular Problems at the Battle of Waterloo,”
European Journal of Vascular Surgery
137, no. 1 (April 1987): 137–42.

65
. Crumplin, “Surgery at Waterloo,” 40.

66
. Ibid.

67
. Blanco,
Wellington's Surgeon General
, 147.

68
. Peter Alexander Young, “The Army Medical Staff: Its Past Services and Its Present Needs,”
Edinburgh Medical Journal
4 (1898): 17.

69
. Robert L. Reid, “The British Crimean Medical Disaster: Ineptness and Inevitability?,”
Military Medicine
140 (June 1975): 424. Another important work based on original sources is
Joseph O. Baylen and Alan Conway, eds.,
Soldier-Surgeon: The Crimean War Letters of Dr. Douglas A. Reid, 1855–1856
(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1968).

70
. Reid, “The British Crimean Medical Disaster,” 424.

71
. Garrison,
Notes on the History
, 171.

72
. Ibid.

73
. Ibid.

74
. Reid, “The British Crimean Medical Disaster,” 424.

75
. G. H. Rice, “The Evolution of Military Medical Services from 1854 to 1914,”
Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
135, no. 3 (1989): 149.

76
. Reid, “British Crimean Medical Disaster,” 422.

77
. Owen Wangensteen and Sarah D. Wangensteen, “Letters from a Surgeon in the Crimean War,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
43, no. 4 (July–August 1969): 376–79.

78
. George Halperin, “Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov: Surgeon, Anatomist, Educator,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
30, no. 4 (July–August 1956): 351.

79
. Rice, “Evolution of Military Medical Services,” 148.

80
. G. A. Kempthorne, “The Medical Department in the Crimea,”
Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
53, no. 55 (August 1929): 132.

81
. John Sweetman, “The Crimean War and the Formation of the Medical Staff Corps,”
Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research
53, no. 214 (1975): 113.

82
. Kempthorne, “Medical Department in the Crimea,” 138.

83
. Reid, “British Crimean Medical Disaster,” 422.

84
. Nelson D. Lankford, “The Victorian Medical Profession and Military Practice: Army Doctors and National Origins,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
54 (1980): 513–14.

85
. Sweetman, “Crimean War,” 114.

86
. Reid, “British Crimean Medical Disaster,” 423.

87
. Kempthorne, “Medical Department in the Crimea,” 138.

88
. W. A. Eakins, “Thomas Crawford: Regimental Medical Officer in the Crimea, 1855,”
Ulster Medical Journal
51, no. 1 (1982): 47–48.

89
. Shepard, “Smart of the Knife,” 112.

90
. Ibid., 113. The fact that bleeding remained a common practice during the war did little to help speed the recovery of the wounded. Lord Raglan ordered twelve thousand leeches to be sent from Myrna for this purpose. They all arrived in tightly sealed jars, quite dead.

91
. Sweetman, “Crimean War,” 118.

92
. Chamberlain, “History of Military Medicine,” 240. See also P. S. London, “An Example to Us All: The Military Approach to the Care of the Injured,”
Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps
134 (1988): 83–85.

93
. Ian Fraser, “The Doctor's Debt to the Soldier,” Mitchiner Memorial Lecture, Royal Army Medical College, June 8, 1971, 63.

94
. Sieur, “Tribulations of the Medical Corps,” 211.

95
. Ibid., 212.

96
. Ibid.

97
. Ibid., 217.

98
. Ibid., 219.

99
. Ibid., 220.

100
. Samuel Ramer, “Who Was the Russian Feldsher?,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine
50, no. 2 (1976): 213.

101
. Garrison,
Notes on the History
, 171.

102
. Halperin, “Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov,” 351.

103
. Ibid., 350.

104
. Ibid., 354.

105
. Fraser, “Doctor's Debt to the Soldier,” 63.

106
. Ibid.

107
. Wolfe, “Genesis of the Medical Department,” 840.

108
. Grissinger, “Development of Military Medicine,” 322.

109
. Wolfe, “Genesis of the Medical Department,” 23.

110
. Grissinger, “Development of Military Medicine,” 324–25.

111
. Thomas R. Irey, “Soldiering, Suffering, and Dying in the Mexican War,”
Journal of the West
11, no. 2 (1972): 285.

112
. Stewart Brooks,
Civil War Medicine
(Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1966), 74.

113
. F. William Blaisdell, “Medical Advances during the Civil War,”
Archives of Surgery
123, no. 9 (September 1988): 1045.

114
. Ibid.

115
. Brooks,
Civil War Medicine
, 74.

116
. Ibid.

117
. Ibid., 99.

118
. Aldea and Shaw, “Evolution of Surgical Management,” 558.

119
. Brooks,
Civil War Medicine
, 100.

120
. Ibid.

121
. Blaisdell, “Medical Advances,” 1049.

122
. Ibid.

123
. Willis G. Diffenbaugh, “Military Surgery in the Civil War,”
Military Medicine
130 (1965): 491.

124
. Aldea and Shaw, “Evolution of Surgical Management,” 558.

125
. Brooks,
Civil War Medicine
, 95.

126
. Robert F. Weir, “Remarks on the Gunshot Wounds of the Civil War,”
New York State Journal of Medicine
82, no. 3 (1982): 392.

127
. David T. Courtwright, “Opiate Addiction as a Consequence of the Civil War,”
Civil War History
24, no. 2 (1978): 104–5.

128
. Ibid., 106.

129
. Ibid., 101.

130
. Brooks,
Civil War Medicine
, 8.

131
. Stanley B. Burns, “Early Medical Photography in America: Civil War Medical Photography,”
New York State Journal of Medicine
80, no. 9 (August 1980): 1447.

132
. McCord, “Scurvy as an Occupational Disease,” 590.