Ebony and Ivy (62 page)

29
. Krumbhaar, “The Early History of Anatomy in the United States,” 276; Thomas G. Morton and Frank Woodbury,
The History of the Pennsylvania Hospital, 1751–1895
(Philadelphia: Times Printing House, 1895), 212, 493; Jefferson,
Notes on the State of Virginia
, 263; Reuben Aldridge Guild,
History of Brown University, with Illustrative Documents
(Providence: By subscription, 1867), 177–87.

30
. Morgan,
Discourse upon the Institution of Medical Schools in America
, 6–7, 11–13;
Pennsylvania Mercury
, 16 January 1790; Josiah Bartlett,
An Historical Sketch of the Progress of Medical Science, in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Being the Substance of a Discourse Read at the Annual Meeting of the Medical Society, June 6, 1810, with Alterations and Additions to January 1, 1813
(1813), 5–6; Francis D. Moore, “Two Hundred Years Ago: Origins and Early Years of the Harvard Medical School,” Annual Meeting of the American Surgical Association, Boston, Massachusetts, April 21–23, 1982, 527.

31
. George B. Wood,
Early History of the University of Pennsylvania: From Its Origin to the Year 1827
, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1896), 222–30; Samuel Bard, Edinburgh, to Dr. John Bard, New York City, 29 December 1762, Bard Collection, Malloch Rare Book Room New York Academy of Medicine; William D. Carrell, “Biographical List of American College Professors to 1800,”
History of Education Quarterly
, Autumn 1968, 359; John Shrady,
The College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, and Its Founders, Officers, Instructors, Benefactors and Alumni: A History
(New York: Lewis, 1903), 18–19; Samuel Bard,
A Discourse upon the Duties of a Physician, With Some Sentiments on the Usefulness and Necessity of a Public Hospital: Delivered before the President and Governors of King's College, at the Commencement Held on the 15th of May, 1769. As Advice to Those Gentlemen Who then Received the First Medical Degrees Conferred by That University
(New York: A. and J. Robertson, 1769); Helffenstein,
Pierre Fauconnier and His Descendants
, 88–89.

Students trained at Edinburgh also established the first medical program in Canada. In 1819 Andrew Holmes and John Stephenson graduated from Edinburgh and returned to Montreal after visiting London and Paris. Four years later, they became founding faculty of the new Montreal Medical Institute, an adjunct teaching facility for the Montreal General Hospital; in fact, four of the six original instructors were trained at Edinburgh. In 1828 the Medical Institute reorganized as the medical department of McGill College (1821), which the wealthy merchant James McGill had endowed with a £10,000 bequest and a campus at the base of Mont Royal. Francis J. Shepherd, “The First Medical School in Canada:
Its History and Founders, with Some Personal Reminiscences,”
Canadian Medical Association Journal
, April 1925, 418–22.

32
. William Nisbet,
The Edinburgh School of Medicine; Containing the Preliminary of Fundamental Branches of Professional Education, viz. Anatomy, Medical Chemistry, and Botany. Intended as an Introduction to the Clinical Guide. The Whole Forming a Complete System of Medical Education and Practice According to the Arrangement of the Edinburgh School
(London: A. Strahan, 1802), I:11, 137–38.

33
. Josiah Quincy,
Memoir of the Life of Josiah Quincy Jun. of Massachusetts, by His Son, Josiah Quincy
(Boston: Cummings, Hilliard, 1825), 132–34.

34
. There were no enslaved people recorded for the twenty-year period beginning 1810. New Hampshire had about a thousand free black people by the end of that era. Ralph Nading Hill,
The College on the Hill: A Dartmouth Chronicle
(Hanover, NH: Dartmouth Publications, 1964), 102–3; draft chapters with written notes, Samuel Sterns Morse Papers, 1964–1976, Box 1, Rauner Library, Dartmouth College (also see the Ralph Nading Hill Papers, Box 1); Dick Hoefnagel and Virginia L. Close,
Eleazar Wheelock and the Adventurous Founding of Dartmouth College
(Hanover, NH: Durand, 2002), 95; M. E. Goddard and Henry V. Partridge,
A History of Norwich, Vermont
(Hanover, NH: Dartmouth Press, 1905), 219–21; Emily A. Smith,
The Life and Letters of Nathan Smith, M.B., M.D
. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1914), 51–52, 99;
General Catalogue of Dartmouth College and the Associated Schools, 1769–1900
, 62; Dr. Charles Knowlton's unfinished autobiography was published in two parts under the title “The Late Charles Knowlton, M.D.,”
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal
, 10 September 1851 and 24 September 1851, 109–120 and 149–57;
The Seventh Census of the United States: 1850
(Washington, DC: Robert Armstrong, 1853), 22; Dartmouth Cemetery Association, “Record of Deaths, Interment and Inscriptions” (copied March 1929).

35
. Alexander Grant,
The Story of the University of Edinburgh During Its First Three Hundred Years
(London: Longmans, Green, 1884), I:298–304; James Coutts,
A History of the University of Glasgow: From Its Foundation in 1451 to 1909
(Glasgow: J. Maclehose and Sons, 1909), 517–19; A. W. Bates,
The Anatomy of Robert Knox: Murder, Mad Science and Medical Regulation in Nineteenth-Century Edinburgh
(Eastbourne, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2010); Tim Marshall,
Murdering to Dissect: Grave-robbing, Frankenstein and the Anatomy Literature
(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995).

36
. By 1796 the municipal government and private brokers were seeking to seize the African cemetery to accommodate the expanding white population. The city offered a new burial ground, vacated black people's claims to the property, and resorted to coercion. However, the black community's
desire to protect their deceased also seems to have played a role in shaping the agreement that was finalized in 1800. The new burial ground was in Potter's Field.
Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, 1784–1831
(New York: By the City of New York, 1917), II:221, 264, 626, IV:522–25; T. Maerfchalckm, “A Plan of the City of New York, Reduced from an Actual Survey” (1763; New York: Valentine's Manual, 1850); Sappol,
Traffic of Dead Bodies
, 44–45, 106–7; Jaspar Dankers and Peter Sluyter,
Journal of a Voyage to New York and a Tour in Several of the American Colonies in 1679–80
, trans. and ed. Henry C. Murphy (Brooklyn: Long Island Historical Society, 1867), 136–37. On the social meaning and function of funerary ritual in black New York, see Leslie M. Alexander,
African or American? Black Identity and Political Activism in New York City, 1784–1861
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008).

37
.
Providence Gazette
, 24 April 1773.

38
. John Watts to the Honorable General Robert Monckton, 16 May 1764,
The Letter Book of John Watts: Merchant and Councillor of New York, January 1, 1762–December 22, 1765
, vol. LXI of
The Collections of the New-York Historical Society for the Year 1928
(New York: Printed for the Society, 1928), 254–56; Jared Sparks, ed.,
The Writings of George Washington: Being His Correspondence, Addresses, Messages, and Other Papers, Official and Private, Selected and Published from the Original Manuscripts
(Boston: Ferdinand Andrews, 1839), I:559.

39
. Maria Farmer, last will and testament, 18 March 1788, “Abstracts of Wills on File in the Surrogates Office, City of New York, Volume XIV, June 12, 1786–February 13, 1796. With Letters of Administration, January 5, 1786–December 31, 1795,”
Collections of the New-York Historical Society for the Year 1905
(New York: Printed for the Society, 1906), 136–38; Charles Farmar Billopp, comp.,
A History of Thomas and Anne Billopp Farmar and Some of Their Descendants in America
(New York: Grafton, 1907), 46–49.

40
. Edward Warren,
The Life of John Warren, M.D., Surgeon-General During the War of the Revolution; First Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in Harvard College; President of the Massachusetts Medical Society, Etc
. (Boston: Noyes, Holmes, 1874), 11–12, 227–29; Edward Mussey Hartwell,
The Study of Anatomy, Historically and Legally Considered: A Paper Read at the Meeting of the American Social Science Association, September 9, 1880
(Boston: Tolman and White, 1881), 17–19; Moore, “Two Hundred Years Ago,” 527–29; Henry Bronson, “Medical History and Biography,”
Papers of the New Haven Colony Historical Society
(New Haven: For the Society, 1877), II:239–55.

41
. The Rutgers Medical College (1792–93; 1812–16; 1826–30) enjoyed remarkable periods of success that were interrupted by attacks from Columbia College and Physicians and Surgeons.
Maryland Journal
, 26 October 1787; Sappol,
Traffic of Dead Bodies
, 109–10; see the 1826 advertisement in David L. Cowen,
Medical Education: The Queen's-Rutgers Experience, 1792–1830
(New Brunswick: Rutgers Medical School, 1966); Steven Robert Wilf, “Anatomy and Punishment in Late Eighteenth-Century New York,”
Journal of Social History
, Spring 1989, 510–16; minutes for 16 December 1793, in Columbia College Faculty of Medicine, Minutes 1792–1813, Health Sciences Library, Archives and Special Collections, Columbia University.

42
. Sappol,
Traffic of Dead Bodies
, 44–45, 48–49, 106–7;
New York Journal and Daily Patriotic Register
, 19 April 1788.

43
.
New-York Morning Post
, 15 October 1787;
Catalogue of the Governors, Trustees, and Officers, and of the Alumni and Other Graduates, of Columbia College (Originally King's College), in the City of New York, from 1754 to 1882
(New York: Printed for the College, 1882), 11–12.

44
.
New-York Packet
, 25 April 1788;
American Herald
, 1 May 1788;
Pennsylvania Packet, and Daily Advertiser
, 18 April 1788;
Independent Gazetteer
, 18 April 1788;
Pennsylvania Mercury and Universal Advertiser
, 19 April 1788; Paul A. Gilje,
The Road to Mobocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763–1834
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 78–83; Sappol,
Traffic of Dead Bodies
, 107–9; Wilf, “Anatomy and Punishment in Late Eighteenth-Century New York,” 508–13; Edward Robb Ellis,
The Epic of New York City
(New York: Coward-McCann, 1966), 181–83;
Minutes of the Common Council of the City of New York, 1784–1831
, I:363, 393, 623.

45
.
American Herald
, 1 May 1788;
New York Journal and Daily Patriotic Register
, 19 April 1788; Joel Tyler Headley,
The Great Riots of New York, 1712–1873
(New York: E. B. Treat, 1873), 57.

46
. President John Wheelock to the Hon. Benjamin J. Gilbert, 18 December 1809 (#809668), Resolutions made at a meeting of the President and other officers of Dartmouth College, 18 December 1809 (#809668.1), Henry Fish, William Tully, John R. Martin, Daniel Lyman, and Ira Bascom (Committee for the Class) to the Honorable President and Professors of Dartmouth College, ca. 1810 (810900.6), Rauner Library, Dartmouth College.

47
. Minutes for 18 January 1814, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Faculty Minutes, I:109, Health Sciences Library, Archives and Special Collections, Columbia University; John C. Dalton,
History of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York; Medical Department of Columbia College
(New York: By order of the College, 1888), 35–36. The stable also appears in the humorous unpublished poem “To Quackery,” in Joseph Rodman Drake and Fitz Greene Halleck,
The Croakers
(New York: Privately printed, 1860), 129–31, 177. Moses Champion to Dr. Reuben Champion Jr., 11 November 1818 and 7 February 1819, Moses Champion Letters, 1818–1819, Box 1, Folder 32, Health Sciences Library, Archives and Special Collections, Columbia University.

48
. Sappol,
Traffic of Dead Bodies
, 111–16; “The Late Charles Knowlton, M.D.,” 115–20, 151; “Charles Knowlton” and “Dixi Crosby,” Dartmouth Medical
School Student Files, Rauner Library, Dartmouth College; Hill,
College on the Hill
, 104–5.

49
. Edward H. Dixon,
Scenes in the Practice of a New York Surgeon
(New York: DeWitt and Davenport, 1855), esp. 28, 231–33; Charles Knowlton,
Two Remarkable Lectures Delivered in Boston, by Dr. C. Knowlton, on the Day of His Leaving the Jail at East Cambridge, March 31, 1833, Where He Had Been Imprisoned, for Publishing a Book
(Boston: A. Kneeland, 1833). The controversy was over his book on contraception and morals:
Fruits of Philosophy: or, the Private Companion of Young Married People
(Boston, 1833), which was also published through London. John William Draper,
Petition of the Medical Faculty of the University of the City of New-York, to the Honorable the [
sic
] Senate and Assembly of the State of New-York, for the Legalization of Anatomy. Also an Introductory Lecture, Delivered at the Opening of the Medical Department of the University, for Session 1853–4, and Entitled an Appeal to the People of the State of New-York, to Legalize the Dissection of the Dead
(New York: Published by the faculty, 1853). On the history of the medical college of Queen's College (Rutgers), see Cowen,
Medical Education
.

50
. Sappol,
Traffic of Dead Bodies
, 3–5; Wilf, “Anatomy and Punishment in Late Eighteenth-Century New York,” 508–13; Gerard N. Burrow,
A History of Yale's School of Medicine: Passing Torches to Others
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 26–27; Margaret M. Coffin,
Death in Early America: The History and Folklore of Customs and Superstitions of Early Medicine, Funerals, Burials, and Mourning
(Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1976), 189–94.