Authors: Philipp Frank
The third and most exciting problem was his attempt to find the actual physical field that permits a formulation of physical laws for the subatomic phenomena in a form that is a generalization of the equations of the electromagnetic and gravitational fields. Einstein has collaborated in this task with two young men, one called Bergmann, the other Bargmann, a similarity that gave rise to many jokes.
Every forenoon Einstein went regularly to his office at the Institute for Advanced Study, where he met either Peter Bergmann or Valentin Bargmann or both of them. Einstein suggested to them various ways of conceiving the structure of space, not only as four-dimensional, but sometimes also as five-dimensional, so that the magnitudes that describe this geometrical structure could also furnish a description of the unified physical field of force. The real force field would then be found, if one could find relations between the described magnitudes, from which the actual laws of observable phenomena can be derived in all domains of physics, including atomic and nuclear physics.
The difficulties of this task proved to be even greater than had been supposed. At present it seems that all the paths that have previously been tried do not lead to the goal. Recently, Einstein has probed new field equations and he has by no means abandoned the hope that electrons and protons will turn out to be just particular fields. Despite the tremendous range of experimental confirmation of Bohr’s “positivistic” Theory it remains, according to Einstein, still an open question, whether it is not possible to derive the same observable facts from a field theory and to save the historic conception of a physical reality independent of the devices of observation and measurement.
Besides the regular work connected with the Institute, Einstein had to occupy a part of his time as an adviser of young men with interest or ambition in science. It had often been Einstein’s fate to be judged not only as an individual, but as a type — indeed,
even more, as the symbol of a certain group of people. This fate was all the more painful for him as there was nothing that he liked less than to be classified as a member of a party or a group. As he had come out courageously for the cause of the Jewish people he has been expected to play the part of a leader or at least of a representative of his people both by the enemies of the Jews and by the Jews themselves. The life of Einstein has been regarded as symbolizing the fate of a people, often talented, but often attacked and driven into isolation. Therefore among the people who looked for Einstein’s advice there were many young Jews who wrote letters to him appealing for his help. In some degree he has played the role among the Jews that Tolstoy at one time had played among Russian youth. Poor young Jews looked upon Einstein as one of their people who had made good and who was so world-renowned that boundless power and wealth were ascribed to him. This was, I dare say, a great mistake. Neither his fortune nor his influence has corresponded even remotely to his fame.
Very often young people of any background turned to him for advice about beginning an academic career for which they felt they were equipped instead of turning to some mechanical work in an office or a shop. Einstein was always ready to advise what he considered proper and was interested in each one’s personal situation. However, as we have learnt, Einstein also believed that it was a good thing to earn a living by means of a “cobbler’s trade” and to devote one’s spare time to study.
Einstein never liked to speak about the material and moral help he provided for distressed people. I recall several cases, however, that I was able to observe myself. Einstein remained interested in students whom he had helped to enter a university, and continued to watch them as they progressed with their studies. He advised them with which teachers to study, which books to read, and even sent them books himself. I remember one such case very clearly.
It concerned a student from one of the Balkan countries. Upon Einstein’s advice he had applied to the university in Prague, where he was admitted. Einstein asked me to take an interest in him and so he consulted me when he had trouble. The student lived on a stipend that he received from a big manufacturer in his native land. But this money, which barely sufficed for himself, the student used to enable his brothers and sisters to study as well. The fact that one of the greatest men of our time was watching his studies was the great event of his life and filled even the
minutest experience with a remarkable splendor. When the young man first turned to Einstein, the latter was still in Berlin, but when the young man arrived in Prague Einstein was already in America. The student wrote to Einstein telling him about every phase, even the most trivial, of his studies; and frequently he received answers from America that gave him extremely detailed advice. When the student met with difficulties in his relations with teachers or fellow students, he asked Einstein’s advice as to how he should behave. Einstein usually advised him to be conciliatory. This was certainly very good advice for this young man, as he became involved in various conflicts in the unfamiliar environment. He was naturally filled with pride because he was distinguished from all the other students of physics by the fact that he corresponded personally with the greatest physicist of our time.
There is little wonder that occasionally a student in this situation imagined himself as Einstein’s representative to such a degree that he regarded all insults to him as insults to Einstein. He would even feel that he was a martyr, happy at being permitted to suffer for Einstein, and finally even came to believe that by being connected with Einstein he was making a sacrifice and getting himself into trouble.
As the persecution of the Jews increased in Germany and her satellite countries, the number of scientists, writers, artists, teachers, and others who wished to find haven in the United States grew larger and larger. As when a large quantity of good merchandise is thrown on the market at reduced prices, economic repercussions occur, even inflation, so when these refugee scholars offered themselves, great difficulties were encountered.
The new immigration began while the United States was still in the midst of the great economic crisis. This was, of course, not an accidental coincidence since without the world-wide depression the Nazi revolution in Germany would not have occurred. As the number of immigrants increased, fantastic rumors began to be spread about them. It was frequently said that the refugees were not pioneers; they did not perform any constructive work as the earlier immigrants had done,
but they wanted only to get rich without working or to live on charity. Many regarded and feared them as professional competitors, many simply used them as scapegoats whom they could blame for various ills. Skillful agitators were even able to convince people that enormous numbers of such immigrants would soon change the national and racial composition of the people of the United States.
When Bertrand Russell, the English mathematician and philosopher, because of his critical attitude to traditional views on marriage and religion, was prevented from being appointed as professor of philosophy at the College of the City of New York, Einstein backed him. He felt that it was harmful for the development of science when attacks of personal and political opponents could prevent the appointment of a scientifically outstanding professor. Russell’s enemies, however, used Einstein’s support for their own aims. They wrote letters to newspapers containing such statements as: “How dare the ‘nudist’ Russell and the ‘refugee’ Einstein interfere in the family life of the United States!” The use of the words “nudist” and “refugee” as equally disparaging characteristics is noteworthy.
Every institution that wanted to appoint one of the refugee scholars was in a dilemma. On the one hand, the American universities were quite ready to help the victims of political persecutions and were glad to have the opportunity of acquiring men of great ability, but, on the other hand, they had a responsibility to their own graduates who were looking for academic positions. It would have been a severe disappointment for them to have positions unexpectedly filled by scholars from Europe who were naturally older and had greater reputation.
This situation also placed those refugee scholars who had already obtained a position in a difficulty. They felt morally obligated to help their countrymen and fellow sufferers who had been less fortunate, but they also felt obliged to look after the interests of their students primarily. Some of them even went so far as to say that it was the duty of every refugee scholar who had a position to see to it that no other refugee obtained one at the same institution.
For Einstein the situation was even more difficult. Here again he came to be regarded as the symbol and leader of the entire group of refugee scholars. The friends of the refugees upheld Einstein as an example of the outstanding men who were coming to the United States, while their opponents felt themselves compelled to disparage him in order to oppose the refugee
group. The refugees themselves looked upon Einstein as their natural leader. They felt that with his fame he would somehow be able to help them, and they turned to him for help.
Einstein received hundreds of letters from scholars in Europe who wanted to emigrate and who asked his aid in getting them a position or an “affidavit of support,” required under the American immigration regulations. Einstein tried hard to help them, and he even made out such affidavits himself for many. Others immediately turned to Einstein on their arrival in America. He did the best he could, but naturally the number of persons whom he was actually able to help was very small in comparison with the enormous number who appealed to him.
In recommending foreign scholars for positions, Einstein as always had only two considerations in mind: the immediate feeling of sympathy for every suffering person, and the conviction that the pursuit of science should be assisted wherever possible. He was always ready to write recommendations for these people. He thought that if a foreign scientist was needed, his recommendation would be of some help, and if this were not the case, it would not hurt either the person recommended or the institution.
Einstein might have done more for the refugees if he had undertaken to study the situation at various universities and to take advantage of the personal, economic, and political factors involved, but such an action was not possible for him. The people who are the most outstanding intellectually and also the kindest are not always very practical. This explains the contradictory opinions about Einstein. Some people felt that he was kind and devoted, others that he cared little for the fate of individuals.
While co-operating sincerely in charitable social and political organization Einstein will suddenly tell you: “Sincerely speaking I have never been much interested in people but only in things.” And if you ask him what he meant by “things” he would say: “physical phenomena and methods to handle them.”
The psychological situation of these new refugees also had its difficulties. Many came from Germany, which they had always considered their native land and with whose intellectual and cultural life they felt themselves united. They had been driven out, but that did not mean that they had therefore lost all connection with it. They came to a foreign country that gave them a friendly reception and made it possible for them to start a new life, which was sometimes even better than the life
in their former country. If they laid too great an emphasis on their connection with German culture, they could easily arouse a feeling of antagonism to themselves in the new country.
On the other hand, owing to the circumstances leading to their emigration, they were strongly opposed, both politically and culturally, to the ruling circles in Germany. As a result, they were accused on the one hand of propaganda in favor of German culture, and on the other hand of carrying on hate propaganda that might create enmity between the United States and Germany or even involve them in war. Remarkably enough, these contradictory accusations were often made at the same time.
Einstein himself was often surprised that the new immigrants from Germany still remained so much attached to their old country. It was a special puzzle to him why the Jewish refugees, who had suffered so much in Germany, still had such a strong yearning for that country. As Erika and Klaus Mann reported, Einstein on one occasion told this story:
“I met a young German lawyer who is living in New York, a so-called Aryan, and asked him whether he was homesick. ‘Homesick?’ he said. ‘I? What for? I am not a Jew.’
“Isn’t that a good one?” Einstein added. “Isn’t that typical? Isn’t the nationalism of the Jews sentimental and lachrymose, a sullen and morose love for a country such as is to be found only among people who do not feel sure which country is theirs?”
“I am also a Jew,” continued Einstein, “but yet everything seems to me so fine in America that I am not homesick for any country, to say nothing of Herr Hitler’s Germany.”
We know Einstein’s aversion against the inhuman mechanical attitude of the German ruling caste under the Kaiser, let alone under Hitler. Equally strong, however, is his love for the German music of Bach and Mozart. In certain respects, perhaps, he even shares the tastes of the German nationalists in art. He dislikes “modern” music and finds it rather repugnant. Generally, he likes everything German that derives from the spirit of the pre-Bismarckian and pre-Wilhelminian period. He has been happy with visitors imbued with the spirit of classical German music and literature. He is even quite sympathetic to the Kantian philosophy, partly perhaps because of its emotional relationship with that period of the German spirit. He has this sympathetic feeling for it although on purely scientific grounds he has rejected it in all essential points.
I have been struck by the fact that despite his emphasized hostility
to the spirit of a Germany ruled by Prussian militarists, he has always been fond of conversing with men — for instance, German-American ministers, in whom the older German spirit had somehow been preserved.