Embers of War (117 page)

31
Brocheux,
Ho Chi Minh
, 74.

32
Ibid., 75. On this point, see also Daniel Hémery, “Ho Chi Minh: Vie singulière et nationalisation des esprits,” in Christopher E. Goscha and Benoît de Tréglodé, eds.,
Le Viêt Nam depuis 1945: États, contestations et constructions du passé
(Paris: Les Indes savantes, 2004), 135–48.

33
An excellent source on Decoux’s policies is Eric Jennings,
Vichy in the Tropics: Pétain’s National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940–1944
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2004), 130–98. See also Ellen J. Hammer,
The Struggle for Indochina, 1940–1955
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1955), 31; Marr,
Vietnam 1945
, 74; and Patti,
Why Viet Nam?
, 33.

34
Marr,
Vietnam 1945
, 78; Jennings,
Vichy in the Tropics
, 188–94.

35
Decoux,
À la barre de l’Indochine
, 444.

36
Jennings,
Vichy in the Tropics
, 145. On the persecution of Gaullists in Indochina as compared to the rest of the empire, see the recollections of Philippe Devillers, who spent part of the war in Indochina: Devillers,
Histoire du Viêt-Nam de 1940 à 1952
(Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1952), 86. Historian Martin Thomas concludes that Decoux’s government was “the most actively repressive within the Vichy empire.” Thomas,
French Empire at War
, 196.

37
Colonel Jacomey to Tonkin Command, May 19, 1941, 1K401/C1,
Service historique de l’armée de terre, Vincennes;
Richard J. Aldrich,
The Key to the South: Britain, the United States, and Thailand During the Approach of the Pacific War, 1929–1942
(Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1993), 288–93; Thomas,
French Empire at War
, 196–97.

38
F. C. Jones,
Japan’s New Order in East Asia, 1937–1945
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954), 260–63; Stein Tønnesson,
The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945:
Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh and de Gaulle in a World at War
(London: Sage, 1991), 38; Dreifort,
Myopic Grandeur
, 216.

39
In September 1940 a joint team of army and navy cryptographers had broken the Japanese diplomatic code, allowing them to read what Tokyo was telling its diplomats around the world. The operation was known as MAGIC and the cryptographers as the “magicians.”

40
David M. Kennedy,
Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 509–11; Jean Edward Smith,
FDR
(New York: Random House, 2007), 513–18.

41
Quoted in Jonathan Fenby,
Alliance: The Inside Story of How Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill Won One War and Began Another
(San Francisco: MacAdam Cage, 2007), 79–80.

CHAPTER 2:
The Anti-Imperialist

  
1
William D. Hassett,
Off the Record with F.D.R.: 1942–1945
(New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1958), 166. See also Robert Daniel Murphy,
Diplomat Among Warriors
(New York: Pyramid, 1965); and Raoul Aglion,
Roosevelt and De Gaulle: Allies in Conflict
(New York: Free Press, 1988). For Hull’s views, see Cordell Hull,
The Memoirs of Cordell Hull
(New York: Macmillan, 1948), 2:961–62.

  
2
Kenneth S. Davis,
FDR: The War President, 1940–1943
(New York: Random House, 2000), 379.

  
3
Mario Rossi,
Roosevelt and the French
(Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993), 67–68.

  
4
David B. Woolner, “Storm in the Atlantic: The St. Pierre and Miquelon Affair of 1941,” M.A. thesis, McGill University, 1990; Conrad Black,
Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom
(New York: Public Affairs, 2005), 706–10; and Martin Thomas,
The French Empire at War, 1940–1945
(Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 2007), 133–39.

  
5
See Georges Catroux,
Dans la bataille de la Méditerranée
(Paris: Plon, 1949), 278–79.

  
6
Elliott Roosevelt,
As He Saw It
(New York: Duell, Sloan, & Pearce, 1946), 115; Samuel I. Rosenman, ed.,
The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt
(New York: Macmillan, 1938–50), 10:69.

  
7
Willard Range,
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s World Order
(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1959), 102–4; Foster Rhea Dulles and Gerald Ridinger, “The Anti-Colonial Policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt,”
Political Science Quarterly
(March 1955): 1–18.

  
8
Paul Orders, “ ‘Adjusting to a New Period in World History’: Franklin Roosevelt and European Colonialism,” in David Ryan and Victor Pungong, eds.,
The United States and Decolonization: Power and Freedom
(New York: St. Martin’s, 2000); Dulles and Ridinger, “The Anti-Colonial Policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt.”

  
9
Range,
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s World Order;
Warren F. Kimball,
The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as Wartime Statesman
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991), 109.

10
Walter Lippmann,
U.S. War Aims
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1944), 50–51.

11
Kimball,
Juggler
, 130.

12
Roosevelt,
As He Saw It
, 37; Davis,
FDR: War President
, 269–73; and Martin Gilbert,
Finest Hour: Winston Churchill, 1939–1941
(London: Heinemann, 1983), 1163. On the differing Anglo-American conceptions of empire in this period, see also Niall Ferguson,
Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power
(New York: Basic, 2003): 291–94.

13
Kimball,
Juggler
, 133. A fine study of the charter and the broader context in which it was articulated is Elizabeth Borgwardt,
A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006), 14–86.

14
Winston Churchill,
The Second World War
, vol. 4:
The Hinge of Fate
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 209.

15
Foreign Ministry Report, “L’Amerique et les colonies,” March 12, 1945, Y-International, file 655, Ministère des affaires étrangères, Paris (hereafter MAE). An excellent summary of the report is in Mark Atwood Lawrence,
Assuming the Burden: Europe and the American Commitment to War in Vietnam
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 24–25. See also Jasmine Aimaq,
For Europe or Empire? French Colonial Ambitions and the European Army Plan
(Lund, Sweden: Lund University Press, 1996), 101.

16
Jean Lacouture,
De Gaulle: The Rebel, 1890–1944
(New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 1:394–402; Warren F. Kimball,
Forged in War: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Second World War
(New York: William Morrow, 1998), 173–74.

17
Memo–Hopkins, Eden visit, March 27, 1943, Box 138, Harry Hopkins Papers, FDR Library.

18
Minutes of Subcommittee on Political Problems, April 10, 1943, quoted in Lloyd C. Gardner,
Approaching Vietnam: From World War II Through Dienbienphu
(New York: W.W. Norton, 1989), 25. See also John B. Judis,
The Folly of Empire
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 124–25.

19
Edward M. Bennett, “Mandates and Trusteeships,” in Alexander DeConde, Richard Dean Burns, and Fredrik Logevall, eds.,
Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy
(New York: Scribner, 2002), 2:381–86.

20
Kimball,
Juggler
, 131.

21
Robert Dallek,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 428–29; Gardner,
Approaching Vietnam
, 22–23.

22
Gaddis Smith,
American Diplomacy During the Second World War
, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985), 93.

23
FRUS, The Conferences at Cairo and Tehran, 1943
, 448–50, 484–86.

24
FRUS, Cairo and Tehran
, 509–68 passim; Kimball,
Juggler
, 143. See also William Roger Louis,
Imperialism at Bay: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire, 1941–1945
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 283–86; Akira Iriye,
Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War, 1941–1945
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 158–63; Gary Hess,
The United States’ Emergence as a Southeast Asian Power, 1940–1950
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 81–82.

25
Hess,
United States’ Emergence
, 89–90. FDR quoted in Washington to FO, January 19, 1944, FO 371/41723, TNA.

26
Cadogan minute, on minute by Strang, January 12, 1944, FO 371/1878, TNA. See also Eden to PM, December 23, 1943, CAB 121/741, TNA.

27
See Anthony Eden’s memo, dated February 16, 1944, and accompanying annex, in CAB 121/741, TNA. See also Kimball,
Forged in War
, 302–3.

28
Quoted in Ted Morgan,
Valley of Death: The Tragedy at Dien Bien Phu That Led America into the Vietnam War
(New York: Random House, 2010), 25. See also David Stafford,
Roosevelt and Churchill: Men of Secrets
(Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook, 2000), 256.

29
Life
quoted in Walter LaFeber, “Roosevelt, Churchill, and Indochina: 1942–1945,”
American Historical Review
80 (December 1975), 1288.

30
Harriman to Hopkins, September 10, 1944, Harriman file, Box 96, Hopkins Papers, FDR Library.

31
The arguments of these “conservatives” in official Washington are ably explored in Lawrence,
Assuming the Burden
, 52–58.

32
Charles de Gaulle,
The War Memoirs
, vol. 3:
Salvation, 1944–1946
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1950), 187.

33
Lawrence,
Assuming the Burden
, 31–32.

34
Jonathan Fenby,
Alliance: The Inside Story of How Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill Won One War and Began Another
(San Francisco: MacAdam Cage, 2007), 287–88; Aglion,
Roosevelt and De Gaulle
, 177–78.

35
Aglion,
Roosevelt and De Gaulle
, 180–81; Lacouture,
De Gaulle
, 1:537–45.

36
NYT
, July 11, 1945.

37
Muggeridge quoted in Alistair Horne,
La Belle France: A Short History
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), 375.

38
See aide-memoir, August 25, 1944, FO 371/41719, TNA. On Franco-British scheming re this matter, see also Massigli to Foreign Ministry, October 2, 1944, Asie/Indochine, file 45, MAE.

39
Mark Lawrence, “Forging the ‘Great Combination’: Britain and the Indochina Problem, 1945–1950,” in Mark Atwood Lawrence and Fredrik Logevall, eds.,
The First Vietnam War: Colonial Conflict and Cold War Crisis
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), 105–29.

40
Stettinius memo, January 4, 1945, Record Group 59, Box 6177, National Archives and Records Administration (hereafter NARA); LaFeber, “Roosevelt, Churchill, and Indochina,” 1291; Christopher G. Thorne,
Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain, and the War Against Japan
(London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), 94.

41
Washington to FO, January 9, 1945, FO 371/46304, TNA.

42
Rosenman, ed.,
Papers and Addresses of Roosevelt
, 13:562–63. See also Thorne,
Allies of a Kind
, 628.

43
See, for example, George C. Herring,
America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950–1975
, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002), 10.

44
Quoted in Rossi,
Roosevelt and French
, 144.

45
J. G. Ward minute, February 17, 1945, FO 371/46304, TNA. See also Gardner,
Approaching Vietnam
, 50–52.

46
Jim Bishop,
FDR’s Last Year: April 1944–April 1945
(New York: William Morrow, 1974), 491–92; Stein Tønnesson, “Franklin Roosevelt, Trusteeship, and Indochina,” in Lawrence and Logevall, eds.,
First Vietnam War
, 66. Tønnesson in this essay presents a powerful case that FDR did not give up his opposition to a French return in the final months of his life. See also Tønnesson’s larger work,
The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945: Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh and de Gaulle in a World at War
(London: Sage, 1991).