Hinduism: A Short History (37 page)

, vol. II, pp. 453ff.

14.

   Guṅaratna, a commentator on Haribhadra, specifies this statement saying that the Nāyaikas were Śaivas, the Vaiśeṣikas Pāśupatas. Also the followers of the Sāṁkhya and the Yoga systems were considered Śaivas.

15.

   There are some coins of Kadphises II with a Śiva image, the inscription calling Kadphises II Maheśvara. A king Gautamīputra Vindhyāvedhana received, according to a coin, his kingdom from Maheśvara and Mahasena. His banner shows a bull. Cf.

, vol. II, p. 177; 140; 150; 152; 455ff. According to D. C. Sircar, “The Śākta Pithas,” in

, SIV, 1(1948), the

is earlier than the

(third century B.C.E.). In it Śiva is identified with the Bhagavat Maheśvara in whose power are Māyā and prakṛti. “Knowing Śiva, who is minuter than the minutest, the creator and protector of the universe, the one having many forms and the one alone encompassing the world and concealed in all beings, men become free from all fetters and attain eternal peace.” Sircar further maintains: “The exceptionally large number of Indian rulers of all parts of the country in records dating from the first century A.D., the mention of ten generations of Pāśupata

in a Mathurā inscription of 381 A.D. and the evidence of the Epics and Purāṇas show beyond a doubt that Śiva’s status at least in the early centuries of the Christian era was practially the same as it is today in the religious life of India” (p. 104).

16.

, Karṇaparvan (Critical Ed.) 24, 41ff; 24, 63.

17.

and

are ascribed to the Gupta period.

18.

   Kālidāsa’s

opens with a beautiful hymn to Śiva in which eight forms of Śiva are mentioned: water, fire, sacrificer, sun, moon, ether, sound, earth. Similar

in Śiva’s honor are also found before

and

.

19.

   S. Satchidānandam Pillai, “The Śaiva Saints of South India,” in

, vol. IV, pp. 339ff.

20.

, vol. IV, pp. 300ff.

21.

   Ibid. See also the interesting essay by Paul Hacker, “Śaṅkara der Yogin und Śaṅkara der Advaitin: Einige Beobachtungen,” in

, XII/XIII (1968), pp. 119–148.

22.

, vol. V, pp. 442ff.

23.

   Ibid., I, 114; II, 33; VII, 46. Partly concerned with Rudra are: I, 43: V, 3; V, 42; VI, 74; VII, 59.

24.

X, 92, 9.

25.

   A. P. Karmarkar,

, finds evidence for the solar character of Śiva-Rudra in the following texts:

1.

I, 115, 1: Sūrya is the

of the universe

2.

XI, 2, 4: Rudra is called thousand-eyed = Sun

3.

VI, 7: “Bharga” is Rudra

4.

V, 24, 687: Śiva is Sūrya; V, 20, 13: Sun is

5.

II, 47: “Rudra stands in the skies”

6.

, Acara Khanda 23, 6 mentions as a Śivamantra:

7.

, Śāntiparvan 290, 86: Śiva is addressed as sun

The same author also thinks that Śiva had been originally worshiped under the form of a fish.

26.

I, 114. Here Rudra is addressed as

and asked for health, bliss and well-being.

27.

   The

forms the 16th chapter of the

according to the Vajasaneyasamhita. English translation by J. Eggeling in

, vol. XLIII,

, vol. IV, pp. 150ff., and R. T. H. Griffith,

, pp. 168ff.

28.

   A. P. karmarkar,

, vol. I, p. 58.

29.

   J. Eggeling,

, vol. XLII, p. 150.

30.

   R. T. H. Griffith,

, p. 168.

31.

   Ibid., v. 54.

32.

   Another major invocation of Rudra is found in

(Vajasaneya Saṃhitā) III, 57ff.; (Griffith, pp. 28ff.).

33.

V, 20.

34.

   Ibid., v. 21.

35.

IX, 1, 1, 6 (translation by J. Eggeling).

36.

I, 1, 1, 1.

VI, 1–9: the eight names of Rudra (Bhava, Śarva, Paśupati, Ugra, Mahādeva, Rudra, Iśāna, Asanih) are explained.

37.

   Ibid., V, 4, 4, 12.

38.

III, 34, 7.

39.

   Ibid., I, 3, 9 and 10.

40.

   S. Radhakrishnan,

, vol. I, p. 142 says that it is certain that the

is post-Buddhistic; it is difficult to say whether it is pre-Christian too.

41.

III, 1.

42.

   Ibid., V, 14.

43.

   A. Mahadeva Sastri (ed.),

, No. 3:

, pp. 20–38. English translation by Srinivasa Ayangar, pp. 28–53.

44.

   The efficacy of the tripuṇḍra is explained in

, No. 4): by applying the tripuṇḍra on one’s forehead illumination follows – without it, it is impossible.’

45.

I, 65, 9–12.

46.

   D. C. Sircar,

, pp. 5ff. connects the Dakṣa story of the Epics and Purāṇas with the ancient myths of Prajāpati’s incest with his daughter

, 61, 57). According to

I, 7, 4, Iff., Rudra pierced Prajāpati, identified with the sacrifice, with an arrow. The injured portion blinds Bhaga and knocks out the teeth of Pusan – it is finally allotted to Rudra. In my paper “The Original Dakṣa Saga”

XX/1, 1985, 93–107) I attempt to prove that the core of the Dakṣa myth consists of the record of the Śaivite conquest of Kanakhala, a

on the Ganges close to today’s Hardwar It was of great importance to Śaivites, Vaiṣṇavas and Sāktas alike, and linked to an important Vedic settlement associated with a famous patriarch Dakṣa.

47.

, Śāntiparvan, chap. 274 (Critical Ed.).

48.

   Critical Ed. XII, 274 takes only the first version into the text and brings the second one (interpolation) in Appendix I, 28 (vol. 16, pp. 2049ff.), Southern Recension. The editor remarks: this passage is substantially the same as

I, 30, 79ff. and

38–40.

49.

   In a former chapter (I, 30) it explains the mutual hatred of Dakṣa and Śiva.

50.

30, 249.

51.

   This forms one of the most important topics in Śaiva-siddhānta. The

who dwelt at length on Śiva’s love and grace were probably responsible for this emphasis on Śiva Nīlakaṇṭha as the merciful redeemer, whose vicarious suffering they celebrate.

52.

I, 45, 20–26 (I, 44, 14ff. Critical Ed.).

53.

, Adiparvan, chap. 16.

54.

I, 9, 92ff.

55.

VIII, 7ff.

56.

, Karṇaparvan 24.

57.

   Ibid., v. 63.

58.

   Ibid., 34, 104 (Critical Ed., App. I, 4).

59.

   Ibid., 34, 115ff.

60.

, Rudrasaṃhitā, Yuddhakhaṇḍa 44ff. Also Andhakavadha:

, chap. 179.

61.

, Rudrasāmhita, Yuddhakhanda 46.

62.

   Ibid., chaps. 26ff.

63.

X, 88: a rather wicked question is put at the beginning of the story: Parīkṣit wonders why the worshipers of Śiva are usually wealthy and enjoy life – while the worshipers of Viṣṇu are poor. sūka’s answer is that Śiva is endowed with the three

and the “deity presiding over

whereas Viṣṇu is beyond

. Therefore the worshipers of Śiva acquire wealth – and those of Viṣṇu obtain transcendental Vaikuṇṭha.

64.

, Rudrasaṃhitā, III, 18;

I, 101.

65.

I, 106.

66.

, Rudrasāmhita, Pārvatīkhanda, 30.

67.

   A. K. Coomaraswamy,

, pp. 85ff.

68.

, Anuśāsanaparvan 14, 134ff.

69.

, Anuśāsanaparvan, 14, 140ff.

70.

   The text itself says explicitly so: every

is located in one of the many

.

71.

, Vāyavīyasaṃhitā defends both the Pāśupata (personalistic) viewpoint and the Vedāntic (a-personalistic) viewpoint.

72.

   S. Suryanarayana Sastri, “The Philosophy of Śaivism,” in

, vol. Ill, pp. 387ff.

73.

   Text and English translation S. Radhakrishnan,

, pp. 707ff.

74.

   K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, “An Historical Sketch of Śaivism,” in

, vol. IV, pp. 63ff.

75.

   T. M. P. Mahadevan, “Śaivism,” in

, vol. II, p. 453 refers to one inscription of C.E. 971 at the temple of Natha near EkaLiṅga north of Udaipur.

76.

, Rudrasāmhita, Sātīkhaṇḍa 23.

77.

   Mādhava,

, chap. VII. The most comprehensive modern treatment of Śaiva Siddhānta is found in K. Śivaraman,

, Benares: Motilal Banarsidass, 1973.

78.

   Cf. S. N. Dasgupta,

, vol. V, pp. lOff. fixes the date of Meykaṇḍadeva at c.1235 C.E. and that of Srīkaṇṭha at 1270 C.E.

79.

   Ibid.

80.

   Ibid.

81.

   V A. Devasenapathi,

, p. 192.

82.

   Ibid., p. 175: “Not acting according to the precepts of scriptures is sin; acting in accordance with the precepts of the scriptures but without being actuated by love for all beings is virtue. Hence both are to be treated as diseases. The Lord causes those who disobey the scriptures to be hurled into hell and removes their sins after they have been properly punished. By causing them to experience the joys of heaven he removes their virtues.”

83.

   Ibid., p. 266 (quoting Jflanaprakasar).

84.

   Ibid., p. 244.

85.

   Ibid., p. 249.

86.

   Ibid., p. 258.

87.

   Ibid., p. 259.

88.

   Ibid., p. 257.

89.

   Ibid., p. 274.

90.

   Ibid., p. 277.

91.

   Roma Chaudhuri,

, and English translation of

vols.

92.