A quiet but remarkable change has taken place in some texts of Christian theology. Here one can now find many references to parallels with – amongst others – Hinduism, where formerly there was no mention at all or very negative polemics. It has become fairly common for students of theology to take courses in Indian religions as part of their professional education. The great theologian Paul Tillich is reported to have remarked toward the end of his life, that, were he to begin his theological career now, he would do so by studying Eastern religions.
HINDUISM PRESENT AND FUTURE
When R.S.S. activists after months of agitation for a recovery of the birthplace of Rāma in Ayodhyā finally destroyed the Babri mosque in December 1992 – in full view of the T.V. cameras of the whole world – some of the worst Hindu-Muslim rioting broke out all over India. In their aftermath the government banned some of the militant Hindu associations and jailed their leaders. They were soon free again and began rebuilding their political power basis. They did it so successfully that by January 1998 they were able to form the central government. In spite of the horror which many had felt in the aftermath of Ayodhyā it became clear that the Hindu parties enjoyed the sympathies of large sections of the population and that “Hindutva,” “Hindu-ness” was a winning political card.
The term had been used as a political tool first in 1923 by Vir Savarkar, a firebrand ideologue of the Hindu Mahāsabhā, who distinguished “Hindutva” as Indianness from “Hinduism” as a religion. He demanded, nevertheless, that every true Indian should consider the country of India as “Holy Land” and that a refusal to do so should exclude people from citizenship in India.
Obviously “Hindutva” is a very vague concept and its meaning depends very much on who is using it. In the minds of some it has ominous implications of Hindu autocracy and fascist ideology. It need not have these implications, however. It could become the legitimate expression of a newly found Indian identity, a recovery of cultural roots and a reconnecting with the historic achievements of “the wonder that was India,” to use the title of a well-known scholarly work. India was one of the great ancient civilizations – it suffered during the past thousand years invasions and occupations by foreign powers, who attempted to destroy its native culture and its indigenous religions. To take pride in Indian civilization and to attempt to build on its strengths is no crime. Every reasonable person will welcome such a development. India’s ancient civilization had been deeply imbued with spirituality; its revival will also mean a
Hindu jāgaran
, an awakening of Hinduism as a religion. If Hindus reawaken to the cosmic religion of the Vedas, the profound spirituality of the Upaniṣads, the fervent
bhakti
of their singer-saints, the scholarly spirit of their
ācāryas
, the social concern of a Ram Mohan Roy and the inspired world vision of a Mahatma Gandhi, Hinduism will become again a guide for humankind and a light for the whole world.
NOTES
1.
H. Zimmer,
Philosophies of India
, ed. J. Campbell, Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Company; 1956, 1.
2.
One of the best known and most informative is Abbé Dubois’
Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies
.
3.
Preface to New Edition of M. Monier-Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899 (Reprint 1964), ix.
4.
First published in six volumes, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1849–74; second edition in four volumes 1892; Indian reprint 1966.
5.
A good selection of these is offered by R. F. Young,
Resistant Hinduism: Sanskrit Sources of Anti-Christian Apologetics in Early Nineteenth Century India
, Vienna, 1981.
6.
The most scholarly work is J. T. F. Jordens,
Dayananda Saraswati. His Life and Ideas
, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1978.
7.
Information is taken from an article in
Hinduism Today
, vol.14, no. 9 (September 1992). As source it mentions Sarvadeshik Ārya Samāj Pratinidhi Sabha, Dayananand Bhavan New Delhi.
8.
The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda
, Mayavati Memorial Edition, 7th edition, 1946 (Mayavati, Almora), vol. Ill, 139.
9.
Ibid., 274ff.
10.
The Buddhist countries of Burma (Myanmar) and Ceylon (Śri Lanka) which had also been part of the British East Indian Empire, became independent nations. As is well known, the former East Pakistan (East Bengal) became independent Bangladesh after Pakistan lost its war with India in 1972.
11.
Young India
, Oct. 6, 1921.
12.
Ibid.
13.
My Search for Truth
, Agra, 1946, p. 6.
14.
Bunch of Thoughts
, Vikrama Prakashan: Bangalore, 1966; p. 7f.
15.
Arthur Osborne,
Ramana Maharshi and the Path of Self-Knowledge
, Jaico: Bombay, 1962.
16.
An appreciation of his life can be found in Swami Chidananda’s, his successor,
Light Fountain
, Divine Life Society: Sivanandanagar, second edition, 1967.
17.
A very sympathetic insider’s account is Pupul Jayakar, J.
Krishnamurti: A Biography
, Delhi: Penguin India, 1987.
18.
See C. Das Gupta,
Mother as Revealed to Me
, Benares: Shree Anandamayi Sangha, 1954.
19.
Autobiography of a Yogi
, Bombay: Jaico, 1960. The Yoga Fellowship also publishes a magazine with information about its activities.
20.
He is the author of
Wanderings in the Himālayas
, Madras: Ganesh, 1960.
21.
He published a monthly
Tapovan Prasad
and a commentary on the
Bhagavadgītā
in twelve volumes.
22.
By now there is an immense literature on Sathya Sāī Bābā, much of it recording the numerous miracles worked by him. See e.g.
Satya Sai Baba Speaks
, ten volumes, published by Śri Sathya Sai Education and Publications Foundation, Kadugodi, 1974–75.
23.
The Illustrated Weekly of India
devoted a cover story and several articles to the Ānandmārg in vol. XCVIII/42 (Oct. 30-Nov. 5, 1977).
24.
The publications of and about T.M. fill many shelves. T.M. activities are usually well advertised. A sympathetic outsiders’ view is
TM. Discovering inner energy and overcoming stress
by H. Bloomfield, M. P. Cain, D. T. Jaffe and R. B. Kory, New York: Dell Publishing Company, 1975.
25.
Publications by and about Swami Bhaktivedanta are too numerous to mention here. The most detailed description is provided by Satsvarupa dasa Goswami in his six-volume biography of A. C. Bhaktivedanta,
Śrīlā Prabhupāda-līlāmṛta
, Los Angeles; Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1983.
26.
Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna. Five Distinguished Scholars on the Krishna Movement in the West
, New York: Grove Press, 1983, 162–195.
27.
Ibid. p. 172.
28.
His novel
The Razor’s Edge
not only carries a quote from the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad as a motto, the theme of the book itself is concerned with ideas central to Hinduism.
29.
T. M. P. Mahadevan (ed.),
Spiritual Perspectives
, Delhi: Heinemann, 1975.
CHRONOLOGY
The chronology of Ancient India up to the time of Gotama the Buddha (including the dates of Gotama the Buddha’s life) is at present the focus of vigorous scholarly debates. The majority of Indian scholars assume an indigenous origin and a date of c.4000 B.C.E. for the earliest parts of the
Rgveda,
1
based on constellations mentioned in them. The majority of Western scholars maintain the “Aryan Invasion Theory,” dating the composition of the
Ṛgveda
to 1500–1200 B.C.E. There is today increasing evidence for cultural continuity between the Indus civilization and the Vedic tradition.
2
The chronology offered here for the earliest period of the history of Hinduism represents mostly the traditional Indian position.
3
Indians who do not use the Western (Gregorian) calendar have several other systems of dating. The most common eras used in today’s India are
samvat
(beginning 57 B.C.E.) and
śaka
(beginning 78 C.E.).
On the basis of the more recent research, based on archeology and astronomy, the following chronology can be tentatively established:
c.
4000 B.C.E.
Earliest Vedic hymns.
c.
3500
Early Harappan civilization.
c.
3100
Traditional dates for the “Great Flood” and Manu Vaivasvata.
c.
3000–2750
Traditional date for Yayāti Period.
c.
2750–2550
Traditional date for Māndhātri Period.
c.
2700–1500
Mature Indus civilization.
c.
2350–1950
Traditional date for Ramacandra period.
c.
1900
Age of
Rāmāyaṇa.
c.
1500–500
Major
Upaniṣads,
development of early
Sāṁkhya,
early
Pūrva Mīmāṃsā
c.
1400
Great’ Bhārata War – Age of Kṛṣṇa. Early version of
Mahābhārata.
c.
1200
Early
Sūtra
literature. Consolidation of Vedic Civilization:
Manusmṛti.
624–544
Life of Gautama Buddha according to traditional reckoning.
527
End of Jīna Mahāvīra’s earthly life according to Jain tradition.
518
Persian invasión under Skylax and conquest of the Indian satrapy for Darius I.
c.
500 B.C.E.-500 C.E.
Śrauta Sūtras, Dharma Sūtras, Dharma Sūtras, Vedāṇgas;
the basis of the orthodox systems; epics and the original
Purāṇas.
c.
500–200 B.C.E.
Bhagavadgītā.
c.
500–200
Bādarāyaṇa’s
Vedānta Sūtra.
c.
490–458
Reign of Ajataśatru, king of Magadha.
c.
400
Pāniṇis
Aṣṭadhyayī
(Grammar).
c.
400–200
Jaimini’s
Pūrvamīmāṃsā Sūtra.
327–325
Alexander of Macedonia’s invasión of India.
c.
322–298
Reign of Candragupta of Magadha.
c.
300
Megasthenes, Greek Ambassador to Magadha.
c.
300
Kautilīya’s
Arthaśāstra
(according to some scholars: 100 CE.)
Gautama’s
Nyāya Sūtra
and Kaṇāda’s
Vaiśeṣika Sūtra.
c.
273–237
Reign of Aśoka.
c.
200 B.C.E.-100 C.E.
Invasions of Śūngas, Iranians, Śakas and Kuśānas, who founded kingdoms in India.
c.
200 B.C.E.-200 C.E.
Peak period of Buddhist and Jain influence.
c.
150 B.C.E.-100 C.E.
Patañjali’s
Mahābhāṣya.
c.
150 B.C.E.
Besnagar inscription of Heliodorus with a mention of Kṛṣṇa worship.
c.
100 B.C.E.-500 C.E.
Patañjali’s
Yoga Sūtra.
c.
100 B.C.E.-100 C.E.
Upavarṣa’s Commentary to
Pūrvamīmāṃsā Sūtra
and
Vedānta Sūtra.
c.
100 B.C.E.-400 C.E.
Śābara-bhāṣya
on Jaimini Sūtras.
c.
100 B.C.E.-800 C.E.
Composition of
Tirukkural.
c.
100 B.C.E.
Early Mathurā sculpture; images of gods in temples.
c.
25 B.C.E.
Indian Embassy to Emperor Augustus of Rome.
c.
50 C.E.
First documentation of images of gods with several pairs of arms.
c.
10
Indian Embassy to Emperor Trajan of Rome.
c.
100–500
Expansion of Hinduism in South-East Asia.
c.
100–200
Yājñavalkyasmṛti.
c.
100–300
Viṣṇudharma Sūtra.
c.
100–400
Nāradasmṛti.
c.
200–500
Composition of
Viṣṇu Purāṇa.
c.
250–325
Sāmkhya Kārikā
of īśvarakṛṣṇa.
c.
300–600
Composition of some of the older
Purāṇas
in their present form.
c.
300–888
Pallava rulers in South India (Kāñcīpuram).
c.
319–415
Gupta Empire of Mathurā.
c.
400–500
Vatsyayana’s
Kāma Sūtra.
c.
400