Authors: Paul Bloom
4. OTHERS
1
Good Samaritan:
Luke 10:30–35 (King James Version).
2
“Never mind ethnicity, community, or traditional categories of neighbor-ness”:
J. Waldron, “Who Is My Neighbor? Humanity and Proximity,”
Monist
86 (2003): 343.
3
“to venture out of one’s territory to meet [other] humans … was equivalent to suicide”:
Jared Diamond,
The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal
(New York: HarperCollins, 1992), 229.
4
“Most primitive tribes feel … the most appropriate thing to do is bludgeon him to death”:
Interview quoted in Howard Bloom,
The Lucifer Principle: A Scientific Expedition into the Forces of History
(New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1997), 74.
5
Jane Goodall describes what happens:
Jane Goodall,
The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986).
6
Newborn babies prefer to look at their mother’s face:
T. M. Field, D. Cohen, R. Garcia, and R. Greenberg, “Mother-Stranger Face Discrimination by the Newborn,”
Infant Behavior and Development
7 (1984): 19–25.
7
they prefer their mother’s smell:
A. MacFarlane, “Olfaction in the Development of Social Preferences in the Human Neonate,” in
Parent-Infant Interaction, Ciba Foundation Symposium
33 (New York: Elsevier, 1975), 103–13.
8
they prefer her voice:
A. J. Decasper and W. P. Fifer, “Of Human Bonding: Newborns Prefer Their Mother’s Voice,”
Science
208 (1980): 1174–76.
9
babies who are raised by a woman look longer at women:
P. Quinn, J. Yahr, A. Kuhn, A. Slater, and O. Pascalis, “Representation of the Gender of Human Faces by Infants: A Preference for Females,”
Perception
31 (2002): 1109–21.
10
Caucasian babies prefer to look at Caucasian faces:
D. J. Kelly, P. C. Quinn, A. M. Slater, K. Lee, A. Gibson, M. Smith, L. Ge, and O. Pascalis, “Three-Month-Olds, but Not Newborns, Prefer Own-Race Faces,”
Developmental Science
8 (2005): 31–36; Y. Bar-Haim, T. Ziv, D. Lamy, and R. M. Hodes, “Nature and Nurture in Own-Race Face Processing,”
Psychological Science
17 (2006):
159–63; D. J. Kelly, S. Liu, L. Ge, P. C. Quinn, A. M. Slater, K. Lee, Q. Liu, and O. Pascalis, “Cross-Race Preferences for Same-Race Faces Extend Beyond the African Versus Caucasian Contrast in 3-Month-Old Infants,”
Infancy
11 (2007): 87–95.
11
adults automatically encode three pieces of information when we meet a new person:
For review, see D. Messick and D. Mackie, “Intergroup Relations,”
Annual Review of Psychology
40 (1989): 45–81.
12
there is something strange about this triad:
R. Kurzban, J. Tooby, and L. Cosmides, “Can Race Be Erased? Coalitional Computation and Social Categorization,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
98 (2001): 15387–92.
13
our hominid ancestors may have regularly encountered other hominid species:
D. Fessler, “Twelve Lessons (Most of Which I Learned the Hard Way) for Evolutionary Psychologists,” International Cognition and Culture Institute, Daniel Fessler’s Blog, January 20, 2012,
www.cognitionandculture.net/home/blog/74-daniel-fesslers-blog/2344-twelve-lessons-most-of-which-i-learned-the-hard-way-for-evolutionary-psychologists
.
14
our tendency to
biologize
race:
Lawrence A. Hirschfeld,
Race in the Making: Cognition, Culture, and the Child’s Construction of Human Kinds
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).
15
the “mere exposure” effect:
R. B. Zajonc, “Mere Exposure: A Gateway to the Subliminal,”
Current Directions in Psychological Science
10 (2001): 224–28.
16
the memory-confusion paradigm:
S. E. Taylor, S. T. Fiske, N. L. Etcoff, and A. J. Ruderman, “Categorical and Contextual Bases of Person Memory and Stereotyping,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
36 (1978): 778–93.
17
age, sex, and a third, variable category:
Jim Sidanius and Felicia Pratto,
Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999); F. Pratto, J. Sidanius, and S. Levin, “Social Dominance Theory and the Dynamics of Intergroup Relations: Taking Stock and Looking Forward,”
European Review of Social Psychology
17 (2006): 271–320.
18
shibboleth
:
Judges 12:5–6, cited in Steven Pinker,
The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined
(New York: Viking, 2011).
19
Lollapalooza
:
Guillermo C. Jimenez,
Red Genes, Blue Genes: Exposing Political Irrationality
(New York: Autonomedia, 2009).
20
babies can recognize the language that they have been exposed to, and they prefer it to other languages:
F. Ramus, “Language Discrimination by Newborns: Teasing Apart Phonotactic, Rhythmic, and Intonational Cues,”
Annual Review of Language Acquisition
2 (2002): 85–115.
21
In one experiment, they tested ten-month-olds in Boston and Paris:
K. D. Kinzler, E. Dupoux, and E. S. Spelke, “The Native Language of Social Cognition,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
104 (2007): 12577–80.
22
twelve-month-olds would rather take food from a stranger who speaks their language:
K. Shutts, K. D. Kinzler, C. B. McKee, and E. S. Spelke, “Social Information Guides Infants’ Selection of Foods,”
Journal of Cognition and Development
10 (2009): 1–17.
23
two-year-olds prefer to give a gift to a speaker of their language:
K. D. Kinzler, E. Dupoux, and E. S. Spelke, “ ‘Native’ Objects and Collaborators: Infants’ Object Choices and Acts of Giving Reflect Favor for Native over Foreign Speakers,”
Journal of Cognition and Development
, forthcoming.
24
five-year-olds prefer a child who speaks their own language as a friend:
K. D. Kinzler, K. Shutts, J. De Jesus, and E. S. Spelke, “Accent Trumps Race in Guiding Children’s Social Preferences,”
Social Cognition
27 (2009): 623–34.
25
Babies prefer to look at a speaker without an accent:
Kinzler, Dupoux, and Spelke, “Native Language of Social Cognition.”
26
When choosing friends, five-year-olds are more likely to choose children who speak American English:
Kinzler, Shutts, De Jesus, and Spelke, “Accent Trumps Race.”
27
four- and five-year-olds trust a native speaker more than an accented speaker:
K. D. Kinzler, K. H. Corriveau, and P. L. Harris, “Children’s Selective Trust in Native-Accented Speakers,”
Developmental Science
14 (2011): 106–11.
28
research into the development of racial bias in children:
For review, see Frances E. Aboud,
Children and Prejudice
(London: Blackwell, 1988).
29
The psychologist Frances Aboud:
Aboud,
Children and Prejudice
, especially 10.
30
But better-designed experimental methods … are established by the age of six:
H. McGlothlin and M. Killen, “Intergroup Attitudes of European American Children Attending Ethnically Homogeneous Schools,”
Child Development
77 (2006): 1375–86; H. McGlothlin, M. Killen, and C. Edmonds, “European-American Children’s Intergroup Attitudes About Peer Relationships,”
British Journal of Developmental Psychology
23 (2005): 227–49.
31
Other studies find … but again this holds mostly in racially homogeneous schools:
J. A. Graham and R. Cohen, “Race and Sex as Factors in Children’s Sociometric Ratings and Friendship Choices,”
Social Development
6 (1997): 355–72.
32
When the studies are run in heterogeneous schools, children don’t care about race:
J. Moody, “Race, School Integration, and Friendship Segregation in America,”
American Journal of Sociology
107 (2001): 679–716.
33
the “contact hypothesis”:
Gordon W. Allport,
The Nature of Prejudice
(Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954); T. E. Pettigrew, “Intergroup Contact Theory,”
Annual Review of Psychology
49 (1998): 65–85.
34
Studies with three-year-olds find that … gender matters:
K. Shutts, M. R. Banaji, and E. S. Spelke, “Social Categories Guide Young Children’s Preferences for Novel Objects,”
Developmental Science
13 (2010): 599–610.
35
But race doesn’t matter for the three-year-olds:
K. D. Kinzler and E. S. Spelke, “Do Infants Show Social Preferences for People Differing in Race?,”
Cognition
119 (2011): 1–9.
36
even for the older children who do take race into account, it’s not as important as language:
Kinzler, Shutts, DeJesus, and Spelke, “Accent Trumps Race.”
37
Sherif and Tajfel were both interested in what it takes to form an Us that clashes with a Them:
David Berreby,
Us and Them: The Science of Identity
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008).
38
The Robbers Cave experiment:
Muzafer Sherif, O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood, and Carolyn W. Sherif,
Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment
(Norman: University of Oklahoma Book Exchange, 1961). For review and discussion, see Berreby,
Us and Them.
39
This was Tajfel’s question. He did a simple experiment:
H. Tajfel, M. G. Billig, R. P. Bundy, and C. Flament, “Social Categorization and Intergroup Behaviour,”
European Journal of Social Psychology
1 (1971): 149–78.
40
These findings have been replicated many times:
B. Mullen, R. Brown, and C. Smith, “Ingroup Bias as a Function of Salience, Relevance, and Status: An Integration,”
European Journal of Social Psychology
22 (1992): 103–22.
41
Such “minimal-group” studies have been done with children as well:
R. S. Bigler, L. C. Jones, and D. B. Lobliner, “Social Categorization and the Formation of Intergroup Attitudes in Children,”
Child Development
68 (1997): 530–43; M. M. Patterson and R. S. Bigler, “Preschool Children’s Attention to Environmental Messages About Groups: Social Categorization and the Origins of Intergroup Bias,”
Child Development
77 (2006): 847–60.
42
Other researchers found that explicit cues from a teacher weren’t even necessary:
Y. Dunham, A. S. Baron, and S. Carey, “Consequences of ‘Minimal’ Group Affiliations in Children,”
Child Development
82 (2011): 793–811.
43
The science writer David Berreby begins his book:
Berreby,
Us and Them
, xi.
44
Jews make up … 4 percent of the population in New Haven:
We know this from survey data gathered by Ira Sheskin, father of Mark Sheskin, who worked with Karen Wynn and me on some of the inequity studies discussed in the last chapter; see A. Appel, “Survey: Region Has 23,000 Jews,”
New Haven Independent
, February 4, 2011,
www.newhavenindependent.org/index.php/archives/entry/jews_23000
.
45
teachers sorted the children into groups by astrological sign:
Berreby,
Us and Them
, 208.
46
children born in 1976, which was a Dragon year, actually do turn out to be better educated:
N. D. Johnson and J. V. C. Nye, “Does Fortune Favor Dragons?,”
Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization
78 (2011): 85–97.
47
we “must think with the aid of categories …”:
Allport,
Nature of Prejudice
, 20.
48
stereotypes of racial and ethnic groups tend to be accurate:
Lee
Jussim,
Social Perception and Social Reality: Why Accuracy Dominates Bias and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).