Myanmar's Long Road to National Reconciliation (28 page)

³
   Myanmar Ministry of Foreign Affairs web site,
www.mofa.gov.mm
, 2004.

⁴
   Kan Zaw, “All-round Development in Myanmar”; Department of Agricultural Planning, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (DAP-MOAI),
Myanmar Agriculture at a Glance
(Yangon: Department of Agricultural Planning, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, 2003).

⁵
   J.L. McLean, D.C. Daw, and G.P. Hettel,
Rice Almanac: Source Book for the Most Important Economic Activity on Earth,
3rd edition (Los Banos: International Rice Research Institute in association with CIAT, FAO and WARDA, 2002).

⁶
   DAP-MOAI,
Myanmar Agriculture at a Glance.

⁷
   “Burma: Reconciliation in Myanmar and the Crises of Change”, Conference Report, Washington DC, 21–23 November 2002.

⁸
   Tin Htut Oo and Toshihiro Kudo,
Agro-based Industry in Myanmar: Prospects and Challenges,
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⁹
   K.B. Young, G.L. Cramer, and E.J. Wailes,
An Economic Assessment of Myanmar’s Rice Sector: Current Developments and Prospects,
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Myanmar Agriculture at a Glance.

¹⁰
   Young, Cramer, and Wailes,
An Economic Assessment of Myanmar’s Rice Sector.

¹¹
   Tin Htut Oo and Kudo,
Agro-based Industry in Myanmar: Prospects and Challenges
.

¹²
   Kyaw Than, “Current Status and Potential of Agricultural Education in Myanmar”, Paper given at Australian Conference on Engineering in Agriculture, Charles Sturt University, 26–29 September 2002.

¹³
   G. Batten and Myo Win, “Report on a visit to Myanmar and the signing of an Agreement for Academic Collaboration between Charles Sturt University and Yezin Agricultural University”, Charles Sturt University internal report, 2002.

¹⁴
   R. Meizen-Dick, M. Adato, L. Haddad, and P. Hazell,
Science and Poverty: An Interdisciplinary Assessment of the Impact of Agricultural Research
(Washington D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2004).

¹⁵
   Department for International Development (UK), “Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets” (London: Department for International Development, 2001).

¹⁶
   Khin Mar Cho and H. Boland, “Toward a Sustainable Development in Agriculture: An Analysis of Training Needs for Potential Extension Agents in Myanmar”, Paper given at conference on International Research on Food Security, Natural Resource Management and Rural Development, Deutscher Tropentag, Gottingen, 8–10 October 2003. Available at:
http://www.tropentag.de/2003/abstracts/full/233.pdf
; accessed 22 June 2005.

¹⁷
   
Directory of International Non-Government Organizations (international NGOs) and Red Cross Movement Organizations Working in Myanmar,
compiled by International NGOs, Yangon, August 2004.

¹⁸
   Daw Naw Jenny Loo, “Country Paper: Myanmar”, in
Non-Farm Employment Opportunities in Rural Areas in Asia,
edited by Tongroj Onchan, Report of the APO Seminar on Non-farm Employment Opportunities in Rural Areas, held in the Philippines, 24–29 September 2001 (Tokyo: Asian Productivity Organization, 2004). Available at:
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; accessed 22 June 2005.

¹⁹
   
New Light of Myanmar,
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²⁰
   Conference Report, “Myanmar Road to Democracy: The Way Forward”, Paper given at Seminar on Understanding Myanmar, held at Yangon ICT Park, 27–28 January 2004.

²¹
   S.T. Mancebo, F.M.L. Tuquero, and M.S. Hazelman,
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(Bangkok: FAO-UN Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 2003).

²²
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Australian exporters urged to target Myanmar,
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²³
   A. Downer, “Australian Aid: Investing in Growth, Stability and Prosperity”,
speech given by Hon. Alexander Downer, MP, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Parliament House, Canberra, September 2002.

²⁴
   G. Batten and Myo Win, “Report on a visit to Myanmar and the signing of an Agreement for Academic Collaboration”.

²⁵
   J.H. Badgley (ed.),
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²⁶
   United Nations, “Sustainable Agricultural and Rural development: Trends in National Implementation”, Report of the Secretary General to the Economic and Social Council, Commission on Sustainable Development, Eighth session, 24 April–5 May 2000, E/CN.17/2000/5. Available at:
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John Copland

In Myanmar, the rural sector plays a dominant role in the economy and agriculture, based on Myanmar’s rich natural resources, and is a major potential growth engine in overall national development. An overview of the agricultural sector will highlight the potential for international technical assistance, assistance that will need a strong humanitarian focus.

There is a wide range of agro-climatic zones in Myanmar, ranging from an equatorial zone in the south, a densely populated humid zone at the Irrawaddy [Ayeyarwady] River delta, merging in the centre to an extensive “dry zone” that is surrounded by mountain ranges and a high plateau in the east. The agricultural sector (which includes crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry) involves 75 per cent of Myanmar’s population of an estimated 51 million people; it accounts for 40 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) and two-thirds of all employment. In contrast, industry contributes
only ten per cent of GDP. Consequently, changes and reforms in the agricultural sector are of national importance. The agricultural sector will continue to have a dominant role in the development of Myanmar.

Myanmar has abundant land and low labour costs, which give the country a comparative advantage in a number of sub-sectors, such as crops, livestock, and fisheries. Of Myanmar’s 68 million hectares of land-mass, almost 18 million hectares are classified for agricultural production, and just 60 per cent of that is currently exploited. Forestry accounts for 50 per cent of the land area. Under the constitution of Myanmar, all land ownership rests with the state. Farmers have security of tenure, which is inheritable, but land rights cannot be sold or transferred. The most recent census (1993) indicates that 80 per cent of holdings are below 2 hectares and only 3 per cent are bigger than 8 hectares. In 1991, to encourage industrial agriculture, the government gave thirty-year leases of large blocks (2000 hectares each) to companies and individual investors.

Agriculture (cultivation of crops) is dominated by paddy rice production (21.5 million tonnes), oilseeds (2.1 million tonnes), and pulses (leguminous plants such as peas, beans and lentils) (2.9 million tonnes), all figures being for 2001–02. Rice is grown on 40 per cent of all cultivated land nation-wide, and centres on the delta region, although a policy of encouraging regional self-sufficiency and of increasing irrigation infrastructure has expanded rice production in other regions. The national irrigated area has doubled since 1988 to two million hectares, with only 10 per cent of irrigation water coming from groundwater services. Rice yields are lower than in other countries of the region, but higher than in Cambodia and Thailand. Two other crops are of major importance: oilseeds (including sesame, groundnut, and sunflower seeds) and pulses (including mung bean, black gram, and pigeon pea). There have been limited yield increases in oilseed production. Rice and these crops account for 75 per cent of all sown areas in the country. Horticulture, cotton, rubber, and sugarcane are of significance.

Livestock production is extensive, and traditional methods are still mainly used, although there are some commercial-scale piggeries, poultry farms, and dairy farms in peri-urban areas around Yangon and Mandalay. Large draught animals play an important part in crop production.

Fisheries are dominated by a large marine-capture supply, while the state issues fishing rights for inland fisheries. Aquaculture is not well developed.

Support for the agricultural sector is provided through the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI) and the Ministry of Livestock, Breeding and Fisheries (MLBF) which have around 75,000 and 8,000 personnel respectively. There are several State Economic Enterprises, including the Myanmar Agricultural Development Bank and Myanmar Livestock and Fisheries Development Bank, each controlled by the relevant Ministry. Extension services are dominated by the Myanmar Agricultural Services of MOAI, with 14,000 field staff, which looks after crops, provides the research base and seeds, and operates around sixty farms. The MLBF has a much smaller number of field staff and is mainly focused on animal health. There is limited fisheries extension capacity in Myanmar.

There is no comprehensive agricultural policy statement available, but several public declarations have been made. The basic role of agriculture in contributing to national development is a key Myanmar national economic objective, as is the effective evolution of a market-orientated economic system. Although the national policy of moving towards a market-orientated system was declared in 1989, there still remain vestiges of central planning, such as the setting of production targets for key crops, control of credit, and the complexity of international trade permits, as well as a policy of aiming for self-sufficiency. This has resulted in a diminished role for local communities in determining local priorities — for example, watershed protection, involvement in income-generating activities such as raising small livestock, or relevant technology transfer.

Most controls on domestic markets have been lifted and there is an effective traditional marketing system. At the wholesale level, however, the lack of market infrastructure causes problems, often because there are post-harvest losses of crops that either cannot be transported in a timely fashion or stored adequately. In isolated areas, such as, for example, where other crops have been substituted for opium poppies, the lack of markets has limited the benefits of the crop substitution policy. Without markets for the new crops, the livelihood of former opium farmers is not as profitable as it was in the past.
¹
Agricultural standards and related legislation need to be developed and further strengthened.