Authors: Monique W. Morris
14
. Mary White Ovington,
Half a Man: The Status of the Negro in New York
(New York: Longmans, Green, 1911), 67â68.
15
. Ibid., 190.
16
. Ibid., 190â91.
17
. Khalil Gibran Muhammad,
The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime and the Making of Modern Urban America
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 133â34.
18
. W.E.B. Du Bois,
The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).
19
. Russ Immarigeon, “Delinquent Girls Need to Farm,” Prison Memory Project, October 30, 2014,
http://www.prisonpublicmemory.org/blog/2014/delinquent-girls-need-to-farm
.
20
.
Ward,
Black Child-Savers
, 47.
21
. E. Franklin Frazier,
Rebellious Youth: The Negro Family in the United States
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939), in
African American Classics in Criminology and Criminal Justice
, ed. Shaun Gabbidon, Helen Taylor Greene, and Vernetta Young (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002), 99.
22
. Nina Bernstein, “Ward of the State: The Gap in Ella Fitzgerald's Life,”
New York Times
, June 23, 1996.
23
. Ruzz Immarigeon, “The âUngovernable' Ella Fitzgerald,” Public Prison Memory Project, October 29, 2014,
http://prisonpublicmemory.org/blog/2014/02/ungovernable-ella-fitzgerald
.
24
. Ibid. See also Bernstein, “Ward of the State.”
25
. Ward,
Black Child-Savers
, 88â91.
26
. Vernetta Young, “Gender Expectations and Their Impact on Black Female Offenders and Victims,”
Justice Quarterly
3, no. 3 (1986): 305â27.
27
. Melissa Sickmund, Anthony Sladky, Wei Kang, and Charles Puzzanchera,
Easy Access to the Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 2015).
28
. Ibid.
29
. Center for Children's Law and Policy, “Understanding OJJDP Survey of Conditions of Confinement in Juvenile Facilities, Fact Sheet,” August 3, 2010,
http://www.cclp.org/documents/Conditions/Fact%20Sheet%20-%20OJJDP%20Survey-%20Conditions%20of%20Confinement.pdf
.
30
. Bonita Veysey,
Adolescent Girls with Mental Health Disorders Involved in the Juvenile Justice System
(Delmar, NY: National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice, 2003).
31
. Monique W. Morris, “Representing the Educational Experiences of Black Girls in a Juvenile Court School,”
Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk
5, no. 2 (2014): article 5.
32
. David E. Houchins, DaShaunda Puckett-Patterson, Shane Crosby, Margaret W. Shippen, and Kristine Jolivette, “Barriers to Facilitators to Providing Incarcerated Youth with Quality Education,”
Preventing School Failure
53, no. 3 (2009): 159â66.
33
. Bruce Wolford,
Juvenile Justice Education: Who Is Educating Youth?
(Richmond, KY: EDJJ, 2000).
34
. Jennie L. Shufelt and Joseph J. Cocozza,
Youth with Mental Health Disorders in the Juvenile Justice System: Results from a Multi-State Prevalence
Study
(Delmar, NY: National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice, 2006).
35
. Berkeley Center for Criminal Justice,
Mental Health Issues in California's Juvenile Justice System
(Berkeley: U C Berkeley School of Law, 2010).
36
. Osa D. Coffey and Maia G. Gemignani,
Effective Practices in Juvenile Correctional Education: A Study of the Literature and Research
(Washington, DC: Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 1994). See also Nicholas W. Read and Mindee O'Cummings, “Factsheet: Juvenile Justice Education,” National Evaluation and Technical Assistance Center for the Education of Children and Youth Who Are Neglected, Delinquent, or At Risk, 2011,
http://www.neglected-delinquent.org/sites/default/files/NDFactSheet.pdf
.
37
. Donald Keeley, “Some Effects of the Label Juvenile Delinquent on Teacher Expectations of Student Behavior” (PhD diss., University of Georgia, 1973).
38
. Malcolm X, Speech at the Founding Rally of the Organization of Afro-American Unity, March 8, 1964. The full quote is “Education is our passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs only to the people who prepare for it today.”
39
. Ivory Toldson, Kamilah Woodson, Ronald Braithwaite, and Rhonda Holliday, “Academic Potential Among African American Adolescents in Juvenile Detention Centers: Implications for Reentry to School,”
Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
49, no. 8 (2010): 551â70.
40
. Veysey,
Adolescent Girls with Mental Health Disorders
.
41
. Toldson et al., “Academic Potential Among African American Adolescents.”
42
.
Stopbullying.gov
, “Facts About Bullying,”
http://www.stopbullying.gov/news/media/facts/#listing
.
43
. An IEP is an Individualized Education Plan, which is part of the district's special education services.
44
. Linda LeBlanc and Alexander Ratnofsky, “Unlocking Learning: Chapter 1 in Correctional Facilities,” prepared for the U.S. Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary, Washington, DC, 1991,
http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112047630717;view=1up;seq=3
.
5. Repairing Relationships, Rebuilding Connections
1
. The “prison-industrial complex” refers to the “looming presence” of the prison system, both as a function of government and in its privatized state, and
its attraction of capital and service (e.g. health, telecommunications, construction, etc.). See Mike Davis, “Hell Factories in the Field: A Prison-Industrial Complex,”
The Nation
, February 20, 1995. See also Angela Y. Davis,
Are Prisons Obsolete?
(New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003).
2
. Alan Payne, Denise Gottfreson, and Candace Kruttschnitt, “Girls, Schooling, and Delinquency,” in
The Delinquent Girl
, ed. Margaret Zahn (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 149.
3
. Paolo Freire,
Pedagogy of the Oppressed
(New York: Continuum International, 2012).
4
. Monique W. Morris, “Sacred Inquiry and Delinquent Black Girls: Developing a Foundation for a Liberative Pedagogical Praxis,” in
Understanding Work Experiences from Multiple Perspectives: New Paradigms for Organizational Excellence
, ed. G.D. Sardana and Tojo Thatchenkerry (New Delhi: Bloomsbury India, 2014), 416â28; Peter Reason, “Reflections on Sacred Experience and Sacred Science,”
Journal of Management Inquiry
2, no. 3 (1993): 277; Monique W. Morris, “Representing the Educational Experiences of Black Girls in a Juvenile Court School,”
Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk
5, no. 2 (2014): article 5.
5
. “Justice by Gender: The Lack of Appropriate Prevention, Diversion and Treatment Alternatives for Girls in the Justice System,”
William and Mary Journal of Women and the Law
9, no. 1 (2002): 73.
6
. Maya Angelou, “Equality,” in
I Shall Not Be Moved
(New York: Random House), 1990.
7
. Nikki Jones,
Between Good and Ghetto: African American Girls and Inner-City Violence
(Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 158.
8
. Elaine Richardson, “My Ill-Literacy Narrative: Growing Up Black, Po and a Girl, in the Hood,”
Gender and Education
21, no. 6 (2009): 753â67.
9
. Caroline Hodges Persell,
Education and Inequality: The Roots and Results of Stratification in America's Schools
(New York: The Free Press, 1977); Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron,
Reproduction in Society, Education and Culture
, 2nd ed. (London: Sage Publications, 1990). See also Kathleen Nolan,
Police in the Hallways: Discipline in an Urban High School
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011).
10
. Donald Keeley, “Some Effects of the Label Juvenile Delinquent on Teacher Expectations of Student Behavior” (PhD diss., University of Georgia, 1973). See also Emanuel Mason, “Teachers' Observations and Expectations of Boys and Girls
as Influenced by Psychological Reports and Knowledge of the Effects of Bias,”
Journal of Educational Psychology
65 (1973): 238â43.
11
. William Corsaro,
The Sociology of Childhood,
4th ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2015).
12
. Rebecca Carroll,
Sugar in the Raw: Voices of Young Black Girls in America
(New York: Three Rivers Press, 1997). See also Ted Wachtel and Laura Mirsky,
Safer, Saner Schools: Restorative Practices in Education, Restoring a Culture of Community in Learning Environments
(Bethlehem, PA: International Institute for Restorative Practices, 2008).
13
. Elijah Anderson,
Code of the Street: Decency, Violence and the Moral Life of the Inner City
(New York: W.W. Norton, 2000).
14
. Manning Marable,
Black Liberation in Conservative America
(Boston: South End Press, 1997).
Appendix A: Girls, We Got You!
1
. U.S. Census, “Education and Synthetic Work-Life Earnings Estimates,” September 2011,
http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/acs-14.pdf
.
Appendix B: Alternatives to Punishment
1
. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports,
Primary FAQs
, 2015,
http://www.pbis.org/school/primary-level/faqs
.
2
. Lucille Eber, George Sugai, Carl Smith, and Terrance Scott, “Wraparound and Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports in Schools,”
Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
10, no. 3 (2002): 171.
3
. Ibid.
4
. Catherine P. Bradshaw, Mary M. Mitchell, and Philip Leaf, “Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on Student Outcomes: Results from a Randomized Controlled Effectiveness Trial in Elementary Schools,”
Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions
12, no. 3 (July 2010), doi:10.1177/1098300709334798.
5
. George Sugai, Robert Horner, Glen Dunlap, Meme Heineman, Timothy Lewis, C. Michael Nelson, Terrance Scott, et al.,
Applying Positive Behavioral Support and Functional Behavioral Assessment in Schools
(Eugene, OR: Center on Behavioral Interventions and Supports, University of Oregon, 1999)
.
6
. Bradshaw et al., “Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions.”
7
.
Elizabeth Steed, Tina Pomerleau, Howard Muscott, and Leigh Rohde, “Program-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports in Rural Preschools,”
Rural Special Education Quarterly
32, no. 1 (2013): 38.
8
. Brennan L. Wilcox, H. Rutherford Turnbull III, and Ann P. Turnbull, “Behavioral Issues and IDEA: Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports and the Functional Behavioral Assessment in the Disciplinary Context,”
Exceptionality: A Special Education Journal
8, no. 3 (2000): 173â87.
9
. H. Rutherford Turnbull III, Brennan L. Wilcox, Matthew Stowe, Carolyn Raper, and Laura Penny Hedges, “Public Policy Foundations for Positive Behavioral Interventions, Strategies, and Supports,”
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions
2, no. 4 (2000): 218.
10
. Note that these norms may not have been created in partnership with the students. Rigorous measurements of PBIS outcomes in elementary schools include randomized controlled effectiveness trials, using the Effective Behavior Support Survey and the Schoolwide Evaluation Tool (SET) to measure the implementation and effectiveness of seven subscales, including (1) behavior expectations defined, (2) behavioral expectations taught, (3) reward system, (4) violation system, (5) monitoring and evaluation, (6) management, and (7) district support. In Maryland, researchers used the Implementation Phases Inventory (IPI), which follows a “stages of change” theoretical model (i.e., preparation, initiation, implementation, maintenance) to assess forty-four key elements of PBIS implementation. Researchers Bradshaw and Pas found that lower performing schools were more likely to use PBIS in Maryland, where participants in PBIS training self-identify. These scholars also found that district factors (e.g., qualified teachers, school disorganization, etc.) were closely related to training in and ultimately adopting PBIS.
11
. Catherine P. Bradshaw, Christine W. Koth, Katherine B. Bevans, Nicholas Ialongo, and Phillip J. Leaf, “The Impact of School-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) on the Organizational Health of Elementary Schools,”
School Psychology Quarterly
23 (2008): 462â73; Bradshaw, Mitchell, and Leaf, “Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions.”
12
. Howard S. Muscott, Eric L. Mann, and Marcel R. LeBrun, “Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports in New Hampshire: Effects of Large-Scale Implementation of Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support on Student Discipline and Academic Achievement,”
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions
10, no. 3 (2008): 190â205.
13
.
Bradshaw et al., “Examining the Effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions.”
14
. Meeting 80 percent of the fidelity criteria on the overall and subscales related to teaching expectations have the most positive student outcomes. See J. Doolittle, “Sustainability of Positive Supports in Schools” (PhD diss., University of Oregon, 2006. See also Robert H. Horner, Anne W. Todd, Teri Lewis-Palmer, Larry K. Irvin, George Sugai, and Joseph J. Boland, “The School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET): A Research Instrument for Assessing School-wide Positive Behavior Support,”
Journal of Positive Behavior Intervention
6 (2004): 3â12.