Reformers to Radicals (41 page)

23
. Loyal Jones to Philip Young, October 10, 1963, CSM Papers, box 99. See also Phil Young to George Chumbley Jr., Battery Park Hotel, October 17, 1963, CSM Papers, box 99.

24
. Perley Ayer to the CSM Board, September 13, 1963, CSM Papers, box 70.

25
. Perley Ayer to Brooks Hays, January 20, 1962, CSM Papers, box 81; Brooks Hays to Perley Ayer, April 6, 1961, CSM Papers, box 51.

26
. Perley Ayer to John Sherman Cooper, January 24, 1961, CSM Papers, box 42; Perley Ayer to John Whisman, January 2, 1961, CSM Papers, box 68; Milton Ogle to John Sherman Cooper, June 2, 1961, CSM Papers, box 236; Perley Ayer to Carl Perkins, July 19, 1961, CSM Papers, box 61; Perley Ayer to John Whisman, February 16, 1961, CSM Papers, box 68. See also Perley Ayer to Wilson Wyatt, February 1, 1961, CSM Papers, box 68; and “Berea Sociologist Raps Welfare ‘for Free.'”

27
. Loyal Jones to Charles Drake, December 17, 1960 (quote), CSM Papers, box 45; “A Demonstration Project Utilizing a Broad Welfare Concept,” n.d., CSM Papers, box 243. See also Oral History Interview with Loyal Jones, November 19, 1990, Berea, KY, WOP Oral History Project.

28
. Loyal Jones to Frederick Kirsch, December 1, 1960, CSM Papers, box 54; W. Ross “Pop” Baley to Loyal Jones, April 6, 1961, Loyal Jones to Joe Barker, September 27, 1960, and Loyal Jones to Hattie Bates, December 19, 1961, CSM Papers, box 40. See also Alice Slone to Loyal Jones, June 27, 1961, CSM Papers, box 65.

29
. Perley Ayer to Loyal Jones, July 26, 1960, CSM Papers, box 53; Perley Ayer to D. M. Aldridge, June 30, 1960, CSM Papers, box 39; Minutes of the Kentucky Rural Development Executive Committee Meeting, April 7, 1961, CSM Papers, box 45.

30
. Milton Ogle to A. Lee Coleman, August 18, 1960, CSM Papers, box 236; “Projects of Progress in Laurel County,” November 1962, and “Projects of
Progress in Perry County,” November 1962, CSM Papers, box 237. It should be noted that, while these were projects with which CSM members worked, the Council was not solely responsible for them.

31
. (Mrs. Ray) Judy Drukker to Perley Ayer, November 8, 1961, and Perley Ayer to D. M. Aldridge, January 12, 1961, CSM Papers, box 39. On the Chicago project, see Whisnant,
Modernizing the Mountaineer
, 22–23 (
Tribune
quote, 22). For further information on the Appalachian Fund, see Parrish,
To Make a Difference
, See also Gitlin and Hollander,
Uptown
, On the Great Cities–Gray Areas program, see O'Connor, “The Fight against Poverty.”

32
. “Mountain Life and Work . . . Its Scope and Purpose,”
Mountain Life and Work
35 (Spring 1960): 18–19. In the next issue of
Mountain Life and Work
, the Council member Joe Mobley commented that, until 1950, the coal industry actually was a positive force in Appalachia. See Mobley, “A Hard Look at Tomorrow.” For more on the importance of the coal industry in the central Appalachians prior to mechanization, see Shifflett,
Coal Towns
,

33
. Quentin Allen to Loyal Jones, October 2, 1963, and Quentin Allen to Perley Ayer, October 24, 1963, CSM Papers, box 70.

34
. Press Release, Eli Cohen, Executive Secretary of the National Committee on Employment of Youth, [on his Address before the Forty-ninth Annual Conference of the CSM], February 10, 1961, CSM Papers, box 42. See also Eli Cohen to Loyal Jones, January 3, 1961, CSM Papers, box 42. Cohen's theme was echoed by the economist Robert Theobald at the 1964 annual conference when he spoke of the cybernetic revolution that was then sweeping the world. Again, in terms of the implication for impoverished mountaineers, the significance of the speech was the need for improved education.

35
. For an overview of Appalachian “otherness,” see Harney, “A Strange Land and Peculiar People”; Frost, “Our Contemporary Ancestors in the Southern Mountains”; Fox,
The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come
,
Trail of the Lonesome Pine
, and “The Southern Mountaineer”; Semple, “The Anglo-Saxons of the Kentucky Mountains”; Wilson, “Elizabethan America”; and Weller,
Yesterday's People
, For an examination of how literature in the late twentieth century still created an “other” Appalachia, see Duke,
Writers and Miners
,

36
. Max Miller, Professor of Education, Pikeville College, to Perley Ayer, January 19, 1963, CSM Papers, box 86; Loyal Jones to Harriette Arnow, September 5, 1961, CSM Papers, box 39; Loyal Jones to Allen Trout,
Louisville Courier-Journal
, June 12, 1963, CSM Papers, box 96.

37
. “Council Newsletter” no. 2, 1962, CSM Papers, box 172; Grazia Combs to Perley Ayer, May 7, 1963, CSM Papers, box 74.

38
. Charles Drake to Loyal Jones, [ca. November 1960], CSM Papers, box 45. See also Loyal Jones to Charles Drake, November 9, 1960, CSM Papers, box 45.

39
. Jones, Parrish, and Perrin, “Problems in Revisionism,” 176.

40
. Minutes, Board of Directors Meeting, September 16, 1961, CSM Papers, box 17; Perley Ayer to CSM Board, September 13, 1963, CSM Papers, box 70.

41
. On the Peace Corps, see Anderson,
The Movement and the Sixties
, 59–60; and Matusow,
The Unraveling of America
, 31, 243–44. For the book project, see Charles Drake to Loyal Jones, February 1961, CSM Papers, box 45; Minutes, Board of Directors Meeting, February 7–11, 1961, Gatlinburg, TN, CSM Papers, box 17; and Charles Drake to W. R. “Pop” Baley, February 24, 1961, CSM Papers, box 45.

42
. Loyal Jones to Charles Drake, March 9, 1961, and April 6, 1961, and Charles Drake to Harry Ernst, April 15, 1961, CSM Papers, box 45.

43
. Loyal Jones to D. M. Aldridge, April 21, 1961, and Loyal Jones to Louis Armstrong, April 4, 1961, CSM Papers, box 39 (first quote); “University of Kentucky Appalachian Resource Development Project,” November 12, 1960, CSM Papers, box 236 (other quotes); Paul Ylvisaker, Ford Foundation, to Perley Ayer, July 2, 1962, and Perley Ayer to Paul Ylvisaker, August 1, 1962, CSM Papers, box 100. See also Septima Clark to Perley Ayer, April 4, 1961, CSM Papers, box 39.

44
. Remember that the Peace Corps was supposed to aid
underdeveloped
countries. Thus, by asking for Peace Corps volunteers to come to Appalachia, the Council of the Southern Mountains reinforced the conception, in its own mind and that of the nation, that Appalachians were “contemporary ancestors.” Windmiller (
The Peace Corps and Pax Americana
) criticizes the colonial implications of the Peace Corps. On the Kennedys and Operation Bookstrap, see Charles Drake to Mrs. Kendall Bryan, April 15, 1961, CSM Papers, box 45. For the Peace Corps in the Southern mountains, see Warren Wiggins, Acting Director of the Peace Corps, to Loyal Jones, May 11, 1961, CSM Papers, box 88. See also Perley Ayer to Robert F. Kennedy, December 21, 1962 (CSM request of NSC volunteers), CSM Papers, box 85; and Matusow,
The Unraveling of America
, 117 (quotes on the NSC).

45
. Matusow,
The Unraveling of America
, 118 (first quote); Richard Boone to Perley Ayer, January 31, 1963 (other quotes), CSM Papers, box 88.

46
. Caudill,
Night Comes to the Cumberlands;
Bigart, “Kentucky Miners.” On Bigart's influence on the president, see Whisnant,
Modernizing the Mountaineer
, 94.

47
. Bigart, “Kentucky Miners.”

48
. Ibid.

49
. Ibid. Bigart also noted that nearby Pike County curtailed a school lunch program at Hellier owing to a shortage of funds.

50
. Appalachian Volunteers First Report, March 30, 1964, Appalachian Volunteers Papers (hereafter AV Papers), box 3, Southern Appalachian Archives, Hutchins Library, Berea College, Berea, KY; Untitled Report, n.d., AV Papers, box 8.

51
. Matusow,
The Unraveling of America
, 15 (quote). Perhaps the best account of the West Virginia primary is in White,
The Making of the President,
1960
, 96–114. Anderson (
The Movement and the Sixties
, 59) discusses Kennedy's “fix-it social agenda”—which would “spread 1950s affluence and middle class status to all” and which he used during the campaign of 1960.

52
. Appalachian Volunteers First Report, March 30, 1964, AV Papers, box 3; Untitled Report, n.d., AV Papers, box 8.

53
. Whisnant,
Modernizing the Mountaineer
, 127–31 (on PARC), 128 (quote [from
Whitesburg, KY, Mountain Eagle
, March 12, 1964]). Sundquist,
Politics and Policy
, 102. On the CSM and its relation to PARC's programs, see A Volunteer Component for the Eastern Kentucky Program, [1963], AV Papers, box 20; Policy Statement of the Council of the Southern Mountains, Inc., in Relation to the So-Called “Crash Program” of Emergency Relief of Federal, Regional and State Interests, December 20, 1963, CSM Papers, box 70; Appalachian Volunteers: First Year Working Draft, [1964], AV Papers, box 1.

54
. Policy Statement of the Council of the Southern Mountains, Inc., to the So-Called “Crash Program” of Emergency Relief of Federal, Regional, and State Interests, December 20, 1963, CSM Papers, box 70.

55
. Appalachian Volunteers First Report, March 30, 1964, AV Papers, box 3; Untitled Report, n.d., AV Papers, box 8.

56
. Untitled Report, n.d., AV Papers, box 8; A Volunteer Component for the Eastern Kentucky Program, [1963], sec. 1, Rationale for a Volunteer Program, AV Papers, box 20.

57
. A Volunteer Component for the Eastern Kentucky Program, [1963], sec. 1, Rationale for a Volunteer Program, AV Papers, box 20.

58
. These colleges included Asbury College, Wilmore; Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore; Alice Lloyd College, Pippa Passes; Berea College, Berea; Clearcreek Baptist School, Pineville; College of the Bible, Lexington; Cumberland College, Williamsburg; Eastern Kentucky State College, Richmond; Georgetown College, Georgetown; Lees Junior College, Jackson; Lindsey Wilson College, Columbia; Midway Junior College, Midway; Morehead State College, Morehead; Pikeville College, Pikeville; Southeast Christian College, Winchester; Sue Bennett College, London; Transylvania College, Lexington; Union College, Barbourville; and University of Kentucky, Lexington. A Volunteer Component for the Eastern Kentucky Program, [1963] (quote), AV Papers, box 20; Appalachian Volunteers First Report, March 30, 1964, AV Papers, box 3.

59
. Policy Statement of the Council of the Southern Mountains, Inc., to the So-Called “Crash Program” of Emergency Relief of Federal, Regional, and State Interests, December 20, 1963 (first quote), CSM Papers, box 70; A Volunteer Component for the Eastern Kentucky Program, [1963] (other quotes), AV Papers, box 20.

60
. A Volunteer Component for the Eastern Kentucky Program, [1963], AV Papers, box 20; Appalachian Volunteers First Report, March 30, 1964 (quote), AV Papers, box 3; Untitled Report, n.d., AV Papers, box 20.

61
. Appalachian Volunteers First Report, March 30, 1964, AV Papers, box 3.

62
. Ibid.

63
. Ibid. See also Oral History Interview with Jack Rivel, February 12, 1991, Berea, KY, WOP Oral History Project.

64
. Appalachian Volunteers First Report, March 30, 1964, AV Papers, box 3.

65
. Perley Ayer to [the Nineteen Presidents of Eastern Kentucky Colleges and Universities], January 15, 1964, AV Papers, box 1.

66
. The idea of using local people not simply as a means of obtaining labor but as a way of involving them in efforts on their own behalf and, ultimately, providing them a way of controlling their own lives, was not exclusive to the Council of the Southern Mountains. Students of the civil rights movement are now seeing that this idea was put into practice by other reform organizations of the era. In
Bearing the Cross
, e.g., Garrow successfully expands the movement beyond its most visible leaders. As such notables as Martin Luther King Jr. are woven into the overall fabric of the movement, local leaders like E. L. Doyle of Selma, Alabama, come into significance. More recently, Dittmer argued in
Local People
that, in Mississippi, indigenous people not only were most important but actually gave the movement shape and direction.

67
. See Harrington,
The Other America;
and Galbraith,
The Affluent Society
, For a critique of these works, see MacDonald, “Our Invisible Poor.”

1
. Oral History Interview with Milton Ogle, April 5, 1991, Charleston, WV, WOP Oral History Project.

2
. Perhaps the best summation of these models is in Lewis, “Fatalism or the Coal Industry?” See also Lewis, Johnson, and Askins, eds.,
Colonialism in Modern America
, Demonstrating the longevity and the attraction of the culture of poverty model in the 1960s is Weller's
Yesterday's People
,

3
. Lewis, “Fatalism or the Coal Industry?” Glen, “The War on Poverty in Appalachia,” 41 (quote).

4
. Johnson,
The Vantage Point
, 79, 70. Two of the better works on the liberalism of the 1960s are Matusow's
The Unraveling of America
and Hodgson's
America in Our Time
, Heath's
Decade of Disillusionment
also provides a critical assessment of the liberalism of these two presidents. While Johnson was a latter-day New Dealer, Kennedy was, according to Heath, “trained in the tradition of noblesse oblige” (11). See also Anderson,
The Movement and the Sixties;
and Hamby,
Liberalism and Its Challengers
,

5
. For a legislative history of the Area Redevelopment Act of 1961, see Sundquist,
Politics and Policy
, 57–85 (quote, 62).