Authors: Odd Westad
10
. Marcia Yonemoto,
Mapping Early Modern Japan: Space, Place, and Culture in the Tokugawa Period, 1603–1868
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
11
. Gerbillon and Pereira both spent most of their working lives in China, dying there in 1707 and 1708 respectively. On the Russian side, incidentally, the main advisers on China were the Croat Iurii Krizhanich (Juraj Križani
ć
) and the German Gerhard Friedrich Müller; see Michael B. Petrovich, “Juraj Krizanic: A Precursor of Pan-Slavism (ca. 1618–83),”
American Slavic and East European Review
, Vol. 6, No. 3/4. (Dec. 1947): 75–92; and L. Maier, “Gerhard Friedrich Müller’s memoranda on Russian relations with China and the reconquest of the Amur,”
Slavic and East European Review
, 59 (1981): 219–240.
12
. Not just wanton destruction; a visit to the Sir Percival David galleries at the back of the British Museum in London, recently renovated through a donation from the Anglo-Chinese
Sir Joseph Hotung, shows that the British knew enough about imperial Chinese porcelain to steal it rather than destroy it.
CHAPTER 1: METAMORPHOSIS
1
. “Han Chinese” is a tricky concept. Until very recently, Chinese people’s main identification would be with their province or home area, and the term “Han” has been most often used to distinguish non-Chinese ethnic groups living in the PRC from the Chinese, but since “Chinese” is now used as a term for all citizens of the PRC, “Han” has been added as a signifier for the majority group. New DNA evidence shows a clear north-to-south spread of the Chinese population over the last two millennia and establishes a reasonable degree of genetic cohesiveness of the (Han) Chinese; see Jieming Chen et al., “Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation,”
The American Journal of Human Genetics
85, no. 6 (December 11, 2009): 775–785.
2
. Wang Kaixi,
Gemo, chongtu yu qutong: Qingdai Zhongwai liyi zhizheng touxi
[Lack of Understanding, Conflict and Convergence: Divergence of Rites During the Qing Dynasty] (Beijing: Beijing shifan daxue, 1999), 200.
3
.
Although Asian geography had been mapped:
Matteo Ricci,
Il mappamondo cinese del p. Matteo Ricci, S. I. (3. ed., Pechino, 1602) conservato presso la Biblioteca Vaticana
(Vatican City: Biblioteca apostolica Vaticana, 1938). This is Ricci’s
Kunyu wan’guo quantu
[Complete Map of the Myriad Countries on the Earth] (Beijing, 1602), the most complete (and most beautiful) of these
mappae mundi
. It was mainly based on the Flemish scholar and geographer Abraham Ortelius’s
Typus Orbis Terrarum
from 1570. The best overview of early Chinese mapmaking is
Zhongguo gudai dituji
[Chinese Ancient Maps], 3 vols. (Beijing: Wen wu, 1990).
A masterful cultural compromise:
Da Qing tongshu zhigong wanguo jingwei diqiu shi
[Model of the Myriad Tributary States of the Great Qing from Around the Globe].
4
. See Jürgen Osterhammel’s magnificent
China und die Weltgesellschaft: Vom 18. Jahrhundert bis in unsere Zeit
(Munich: C. H. Beck, 1989).
5
. Governor of Guangdong to Imperial Court, 30 November 1814 in Lo-Shu Fu, ed.,
Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations (1644–1820)
, 2 vols. (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1966), vol. 1, 394.
6
. Jiaqing Emperor decree to Grand Council, 14 June 1818, in ibid. vol. 1, p. 413.
7
. Zheng Yangwen,
The Social Life of Opium in China
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 58.
8
. Echoing a prohibition—never enforced—against opium smoking from 1729.
9
.
Chinese Repository
, Vol. 8 (February 1840), 497–503.
10
. Later Chinese historiography often portrays the Manchus as cowards who ran away while the local (“Chinese”) people stood and fought; in almost all cases of serious battle the exact opposite was true.
11
. Ng Chin-keong, “Shooting the Eagles: Lin Changyi’s Agony in the Wake of the Opium War,” in
Maritime China in Transition, 1750–1850
, ed. Wang Gungwu and Ng Chin-keong (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2004).
12
. Ibid.
13
. The episode in the spring of 1847, when Hong took a two-month break from his incipient insurgency to study the Bible with the American Baptist missionary Issachar Jacox Roberts (from Sumner County, Tennessee), is a farcical case in point: Roberts thought that he had finally made a Chinese convert, only to be told that he was in fact presented with the son of God.
14
. The battle is described in
Supplement to The London Gazette
, 27 November 1860, p. 4771.
15
. Quoted from Bernard Brizay,
Le Sac du Palais d’Été: L’Expédition Anglo-Française de Chine en 1860 (Troisiéme Guerre de l’Opium)
(Monaco: Rocher, 2003), 268.
CHAPTER 2: IMPERIALISMS
1
. Wen-hsin Yeh,
Shanghai Splendor: Economic Sentiments and the Making of Modern China, 1843–1949
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007).
2
. Bryna Goodman,
Native Place, City and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853–1937
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 14–32.
3
. Frank H. H. King,
The History of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), vol. 1, 504.
4
. Madeline Zelin and Andrea McElderry, eds., “Business History in Modern China.” Special issue,
Enterprise & Society
6, no. 3 (2005).
5
. Daniel H. Bays, ed.,
Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), 65.
6
. See Evelyn Sakakida Rawski,
Education and Popular Literacy in Ch’ing China
, Michigan Studies on China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979).
7
. John K. Fairbank, ed.,
Cambridge History of China
, vol. 10 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 583.
8
. John C. Ferguson, “The Abolition of the Competitive Examinations in China,”
Journal of the American Oriental Society
, vol. 27 (1906), 79.
9
. Benjamin A. Elman,
A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 596–597.
10
. Ruth Rogaski,
Hygienic Modernity: Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty-Port China
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 84–85.
11
. Fryer, born in England in 1839, lived in China for over thirty-five years, before becoming the first professor of Chinese at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1895.
12
. David Wright,
Translating Science: The Transmission of Western Chemistry into Late Imperial China, 1840–1900
(Leiden: Brill, 2000), 168; see also James Reardon-Anderson,
The Study of Change: Chemistry in China, 1840–1949
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
13
. For this and other stories of the encounter with Western learning in the late nineteenth century, see Guo Moruo,
Quanji
[Complete Works] (Beijing: Renmin wenxue, 1985), vol. 11.
14
. Wu Tingfang,
America, Through the Spectacles of an Oriental Diplomat
(London: Anthem Press, 2007), p. 60.
15
. Zhigang,
Chu shi taixi ji
[First Mission to the Far West] (Beijing: Shishutang, 1877) quoted from R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, eds.,
Land Without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), p. 27.
16
. Liu Xihong, Yingzhao siji [Private Notes on England], in Zhong Shuhe, ed.,
Zouxiang shijie congshu
[A Collection of Books on Setting out into the World] (Changsha: Yuelu shushe, 1986), 48–49.
17
. Suebsaeng Promboon, “Sino-Siamese Tributary Relations, 1282–1853” (PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1971), 292.
18
. Rune Svarverud,
International Law as World Order in Late Imperial China: Translation, Reception and Discourse, 1847–1911
, Sinica Leidensia 78 (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 90–91.
19
. Ibid., 136.
20
.
Zhongguo jindai duiwai guanxi shi ziliao xuanji (1840–1949)
[Selection Materials from the History of Modern Chinese Foreign Relations (1840–1949)], book 1, vol. 1 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin, 1977), 241–43.
21
. Zeng Jize
, Chushi Ying Fa E guo riji
[Diary of Embassies in England, France, and Russia], ed. Zhong Shehe (Changsha: Yuelu shushe, 1985), 178.
22
.
Qingyibao
, 45 (May 1900).
CHAPTER 3: JAPAN
1
. Harry Harootunian, “The Functions of China in Tokugawa Thought,” in
The Chinese and the Japanese: Essays in Political and Cultural Interactions
, ed. Akira Iriye (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 12.
2
. J. Mason Gentzler,
Changing China: Readings in the History of China from the Opium War to the Present
(New York: Praeger, 1977), 70–71.
3
. Edwin Pak-Wah Leung, “The Quasi-War in East Asia: Japan’s Expedition to Taiwan and the Ry
ū
ky
ū
Controversy,”
Modern Asian Studies
17, no. 2 (January 1, 1983): 260.
4
. Norihito Mizuno, “Early Meiji Policies Towards the Ryukyus and the Taiwanese Aboriginal Territories,”
Modern Asian Studies
43, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 683–739.
5
. Peter Zarrow, “Anti-Despotism and ‘Rights Talk’: The Intellectual Origins of Modern Human Rights Thinking in the Late Qing,”
Modern China
34, no. 2 (January 2008): 186.
6
. Han Fuqing,
Qingmo liu Ri xuesheng
[Chinese Students in Japan in the Late Qing Period] (Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan, Jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1975), 127–128.
7
. Yi Manson et al., “Memorial Submitted by Ten Thousand Men,” in Peter H. Lee, ed.,
Sourcebook of Korean Civilization
, vol. 1 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 335.
8
.
“It is obvious”:
Choe Ik-hyon, “Memorial against Peace,” 1876, Peter H. Lee, ed.,
Sourcebook of Korean Civilization
, vol. 2 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 333.
“But the plan to assassinate”:
Seo Jae-pil, one of the young coup-makers who fled to Japan, later went to the United States, where he took the name Philip Jaisohn, trained as a medical doctor, and became a political mentor to Syngman Rhee and, after World War II, to the young Kim Dae-jung. Seo died at eighty-seven in 1951.
9
. Ki-Baik Lee,
A New History of Korea
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 284.
10
. The Chinese suffered at least 35,000 dead and wounded soldiers and sailors, seven times more than the Japanese; see Zhang Mingjin,
Luori xia de longqi: 1894–1895 Zhong Ri zhanzheng jishi
[The Setting Sun of the Dragon Banner: A True Record of the 1894–95 Sino-Japanese War] (Beijing: Beijing Yanshan, 1998).
11
. Wm. Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, eds.,
Sources of Chinese Tradition,
vol. 2, 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), 275.
12
. Ibid., 269–270.
13
. Isaac Taylor Headland,
Court Life in China: The Capital, Its Officials and People
(New York: F. H. Revell Co., 1909), 357. All of Guangxu’s edicts are in Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’anguan.
Guangxu Xuantong liang chao shangyu dang
, 37 vols. (Guilin: Guangxi shifan daxue chubanshe, 1996).
14
. Bary and Lufrano,
Sources of Chinese Tradition,
vol. 2, 312.
15
. Ibid., 317–318.
16
. Sushila Narsimhan,
Japanese Perceptions of China in the Nineteenth Century: Influence of Fukuzawa Yukichi
(New Delhi: Phoenix, 1999), 181.
17
. Geoffrey Jukes,
The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905
(Oxford: Osprey, 2002), 21.
18
. Harry J. Lamley, “Taiwan under Japanese Rule,” in
Taiwan: A New History
, ed. Murray A. Rubinstein (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2006), 223.
19
. Ibid.
20
. Herbert P. Bix, “Japanese Imperialism and the Manchurian Economy, 1900–31,”
The China Quarterly
, no. 51 (July 1, 1972): 425–443.
21
. Sun Yat-sen,
China and Japan: Natural Friends—Unnatural Enemies
(Shanghai: China United Press, 1941), 150–151.
CHAPTER 4: REPUBLIC
1
. Loren Brandt, “Reflections on China’s Late 19th and Early 20th-Century Economy,” in
Reappraising Republican China
, ed. Frederic Wakeman and Richard Louis Edmonds (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 28–54.
2
. Philip P. Pan, “‘Saints’ in Rome Are ‘Henchmen’ to Beijing,”
Washington Post
, September 30, 2000;
Christian Century
, 18 October 2000.