135. Cloud beyond the horizon: Quoted in Zimring, 2007, p. 21.
136. Blood bath: Quoted in Levitt, 2004, p. 169.
137. Super-predators: Quoted in Levitt, 2004, p. 169.
138. Gotham City without Batman: Quoted in Gardner, 2010, p. 225.
139. Smaller crime-prone cohort: Zimring, 2007, pp. 22, 61–62.
140. Different unemployment trends in Canada and the United States: Zimring, 2007.
141. Unemployment and violence going in different directions: Eisner, 2008.
142. Unemployment doesn’t predict violent crime: Zimring, 2007, p. 63; Levitt, 2004; Raphael & Winter-Ebmer, 2001.
143. “never right to begin with”: Quoted in A. Baker, “In this recession, bad times do not bring more crime (if they ever did),”
New York Times
, Nov. 30, 2009.
144. Inequality and violence: Daly, Wilson, & Vasdev, 2001; LaFree, 1999.
145. Gini index for the United States: U.S. Census Bureau, 2010b.
146. Inequality may not cause crime: Neumayer, 2003, 2010.
147. Claim that abortion lowers crime: Donohue & Levitt, 2001.
148. Abortion one of four causes of crime decline: Levitt, 2004.
149. Problems for the abortion-crime connection: Joyce, 2004; Lott & Whitley, 2007; Zimring, 2007; Foote & Goetz, 2008; S. Sailer & S. Levitt, “Does abortion prevent crime?”
Slate
, Aug. 23, 1999,
http://www.slate.com/id/33569/entry/33571/
. Levitt’s reply: Levitt, 2004; see also his responses to Sailer in
Slate
.
150. More at-risk children following
Roe v. Wade
: Lott & Whitley, 2007; Zimring, 2007.
151. Women who have abortions more responsible: Joyce, 2004.
152. Peers trump parents: Harris, 1998/2008, chaps. 9, 12, 13; Wright & Beaver, 2005.
154. Explaining the 1990s crime decline: Blumstein & Wallman, 2006; Eisner, 2008; Levitt, 2004; Zimring, 2007.
155. American incarceration mania: J. Webb, “Why we must fix our prisons,”
Parade
, Mar. 29, 2009.
156. Imprisoned Americans: Zimring, 2007, figure 3.2, p. 47; J. Webb, “Why we must fix our prisons,”
Parade
, Mar. 29, 2009.
157. Small number commit many crimes: Wolfgang, Figlio, & Sellin, 1972.
158. Criminals have low self-control: Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985.
159. Deterrence works: Levitt & Miles, 2007; Lott, 2007; Raphael & Stoll, 2007.
160. Montreal police strike: “City without cops,”
Time
, Oct. 17, 1969, p. 47; reproduced in Kaplan, 1973, p. 20.
161. Problems with the imprisonment explanation: Eisner, 2008; Zimring, 2007.
162. Diminishing returns in imprisonment: Johnson & Raphael, 2006.
163. Effectiveness of additional police: Levitt, 2004.
164. Boston policing: F. Butterfield, “In Boston, nothing is something,”
New York Times
, Nov. 21, 1996; Winship, 2004.
165. New York policing: MacDonald, 2006.
166. Broken Windows theory: Wilson & Kelling, 1982.
167. New York success story: Zimring, 2007; MacDonald, 2006.
168. Biggest crime prevention achievement in history: Zimring, 2007, p. 201.
169. Problems with Broken Windows: Levitt, 2004; B. E. Harcourt, “Bratton’s ‘broken windows’: No matter what you’ve heard, the chief’s policing method wastes precious funds,”
Los Angeles Times,
Apr. 20, 2006.
170. Dutch Broken Windows: Keizer, Lindenberg, & Steg, 2008.
171. Hard-headed statisticians: Eisner, 2008; Rosenfeld, 2006. See also Fukuyama, 1999.
172. Black women and clergy as civilizing forces: Anderson, 1999; Winship, 2004.
173. Boston Miracle: Winship, 2004; P. Shea, “Take us out of the old brawl game,”
Boston Globe
, Jun. 30, 2008; F. Butterfield, “In Boston, nothing is something,”
New York Times
, Nov. 21, 1996.
174. M. Cramer, “Homicide rate falls to lowest level since ’03,”
Boston Globe
, Jan. 1, 2010.
175. Small predictable versus large capricious punishments: J. Rosen, “Prisoners of parole,”
New York Times Magazine,
Jan. 10, 2010.
176. Discounting the future: Daly & Wilson, 2000; Hirschi & Gottfredson, 2000; Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985. See also “Self-Control” in chap. 9 of this book.
177. Dominance versus fairness: Fiske, 1991, 1992, 2004a. See also “Morality and Taboo” in chap. 9 of this book.
178. “My probation officer doesn’t like me”: J. Rosen, “Prisoners of parole,”
New York Times Magazine,
Jan. 10, 2010.
179. Kant and crime prevention: J. Seabrook, “Don’t shoot: A radical approach to the problem of gang violence,”
New Yorker
, Jun. 22, 2009.
180. House on fire: J. Seabrook, “Don’t shoot: A radical approach to the problem of gang violence,”
New Yorker
, Jun. 22, 2009, pp. 37–38.
181. Reconstitution of social order: Fukuyama, 1999, p. 271; “Positive trends recorded in U.S. data on teenagers,”
New York Times,
Jul. 13, 2007.
182. Informalization and third nature: Wouters, 2007.
Chapter 4: The Humanitarian Revolution
2. Coffee table books on torture: Held, 1986; Puppi, 1990.
3. Medieval torture: Held, 1986; Levinson, 2004b; Mannix, 1964; Payne, 2004; Puppi, 1990.
4. Pope Paul IV a sainted torturer: Held, 1986, p. 12.
5. Illogical torture: Mannix, 1964, pp. 123–24.
6. Universality of torture: Davies, 1981; Mannix, 1964; Payne, 2004; Spitzer, 1975.
7. Critical theorists: Menschenfreund, 2010. Theoconservatism: Linker, 2007.
8. Humanism in Asia: Bourgon, 2003; Kurlansky, 2006; Sen, 2000.
9. Human sacrifice: Davies, 1981; Mannix, 1964; Otterbein, 2004; Payne, 2004.
10. “that no one might burn”: 2 Kings 23:10.
11. Number of Aztec sacrifices: White, in press.
12. Suttee deaths: White, in press.
13. Superstitious rationale for human sacrifice: Payne, 2004, pp. 40–41.
14. Quoted in M. Gerson, “Europe’s burqa rage,”
Washington Post
, May 26, 2010.
15. Shortchanging the gods: Payne, 2004, p. 39.
16. Witchcraft and hunter-gatherer warfare: Chagnon, 1997; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Gat, 2006; Keeley, 1996; Wiessner, 2006.
17. Overactive cause detection: Atran, 2002.
18. Witchcraft accusations: Daly & Wilson, 1988, pp. 237, 260–61.
19. Enforcing unpopular norms: Willer, Kuwabara, & Macy, 2009. See also McKay, 1841/1995.
20.
Malleus Maleficarum
: Mannix, 1964; A. Grafton, “Say anything,”
New Republic
, Nov. 5, 2008.
21. 60,000 witch-hunt victims: White, in press. 100,000 witch-hunt victims: Rummel, 1994, p. 70.
22. Witch hunts: Rummel, 1994, p. 62; A. Grafton, “Say anything,”
New Republic
, Nov. 5, 2008.
23. Blood libels: Rummel, 1994, p. 56.
24. Witchcraft skeptics: Mannix, 1964, pp. 133–34.
25. Witchcraft experiments: Mannix, 1964, pp. 134–35, also recounted in McKay, 1841/1995.
26. Decline of witchcraft: Thurston, 2007; Mannix, 1964, p. 137.
27. Atrocitology: Rummel, 1994; Rummel, 1997; White, in press; White, 2010b.
28. Death tolls of Christian wars and massacres: White, in press, provides the following estimates: Crusades, 3 million; Albigensian suppression, 1 million; Huguenot Wars, 2–4 million; Thirty Years’ War, 7.5 million. He does not provide his own estimate of the Inquisition’s death toll using multiple sources but cites an estimate from the general secretary of the Inquisition in 1808 of 32,000.
29. 400 million people: Estimate of world population in 1200 CE from
Historical estimates of world population,
U.S. Census Bureau, 2010a.
30. Albigensian Crusade: Rummel, 1994, p. 46.
31. Albigensian Crusade as genocide: Chalk & Jonassohn, 1990; Kiernan, 2007; Rummel, 1994.
32. Tortured for clean underwear: Mannix, 1964, pp. 50–51.
33. Death toll from the Spanish Inquisition: Rummel, 1994, p. 70.
34. Religious persecution: Grayling, 2007.
35. Luther and the Jews: Lull, 2005.
36. John Calvin, “Sermon on Deuteronomy”: Quoted in Grayling, 2007, p. 41.
37. Murderous Calvin: Grayling, 2007.
38. Henry VIII burned 3.25 heretics: Payne, 2004, p. 17.
39. European Wars of Religion: Wright, 1942, p. 198.
40. Death toll of Wars of Religion: See the table on p. 195 for similar estimates and comparisons from Matthew White.
41. English Civil War death toll: Schama, 2001, p. 13. Schama cites “at least a quarter of a million” dead in England, Wales, and Scotland and guesstimates another 200,000 in Ireland, out of a population of 5 million in the British Isles at the time.
42. Papal pique: Holsti, 1991, p. 25.
43. Decline of the Inquisition: Perez, 2006.
44. Erasmus and other skeptics: Popkin, 1979.
45. Scrutiny of religious persecution: Grayling, 2007.
46. “Calvin says that he is certain”:
Concerning heretics, whether they are to be persecuted
, quoted in Grayling, 2007, pp. 53–54.
47. Skeptical Francis Bacon: Quoted in Grayling, 2007, p. 102.
48. Cat-burning: Quoted in Payne, 2004, p. 126.
49. Pepys: Quoted in Clark, 2007a, p. 182.
50. Lethal pillorying: Mannix, 1964, pp. 132–33.
51. Lethal flogging: Mannix, 1964, pp. 146–47. See also Payne, 2004, chap. 9.
52. Cruel prisons: Payne, 2004, p. 122.
53. Prison reform: Payne, 2004, p. 122.
54. Infamous burning at the stake: Mannix, 1964, p. 117.
56. Infamous breaking on the wheel: Hunt, 2007, pp. 70–76.
57. Compassion for wheel victim: Hunt, 2007, p. 99.
58. Voltaire on torture: Quoted in Hunt, 2007, p. 75.
59. Christian hypocrisy: Montesquieu, 1748/2002.
60. “the principle of sympathy”: Quoted in Hunt, 2007, pp. 112, 76.
61. Rush on reforming criminals: Quoted in Hunt, 2007, p. 98.
62. “blunt the sentiments”: Quoted in Hunt, 2007, p. 98.
63. Beccaria: Hunt, 2007.
64. Religious defense of torture: Hunt, 2007, chap. 2.
65. Early animal rights movements: Gross, 2009; Shevelow, 2008.
66. Frivolous capital infractions: Rummel, 1994, p. 66; Payne, 2004.
67. Speedy trials: Payne, 2004, p. 120.
68. Frivolous execution count: Rummel, 1994, p. 66.
69. Decline of capital punishment: Payne, 2004, p. 119.
70. UN’s nonbinding moratorium: E. M. Lederer, “UN General Assembly calls for death penalty moratorium,”
Boston Globe
, Dec. 18, 2007.
71. United States are outliers: Capital punishment has been abolished in Alaska, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and the District of Columbia. Kansas’s last nonmilitary execution was in 1965.
72. American execution rate infinitesimal: Every year during the 2000s around 16,500 people were murdered and around 55 were executed.
73. Decline in American executions in the 2000s: Death Penalty Information Center, 2010b.
74. Capital punishment for crimes other than murder: Death Penalty Information Center, 2010a.
75. “In reform after reform”: Payne, 2004, p. 132.
76. History of slavery: Davis, 1984; Patterson, 1985; Payne, 2004; Sowell, 1998.
77. Recent abolitions: Rodriguez, 1999.
78. Quote from “Report on the coast of Africa made by Captain George Collier, 1918–19,” reproduced in Eltis & Richardson, 2010.