The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe (70 page)

U.S. Military Government German-language maga- zine, Heute, number 3 [not dated; probably September 1945].

PART III: MOVING BODIES

Prologue: “ They Have Suffered Unbearably”

1. Dean Acheson to Harry Hopkins, December 26, 1944, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, 2: 1059– 61.

6: Freedom from Want

1. Telegram from UNRRA Athens to UNRRA London and
   

   New York, May 22, 1945, relaying AP and Reuters stories about Milos, in UNRRA Archives, United Nations, New York, PAG-4/1.3.1.1.1, box 29.
   

2. For contemporary criticisms, see “Is UNRRA Doing Its Job?,” a radio interview with Herbert H. Lehman printed in Department of State, Bulletin 13, October 21, 1945, 629–36. Early accounts include Philipp Wein- traub, “ UNRRA: An Experiment in International Wel- fare Planning,” Journal of Politics 7 (Feb. 1945): 1–24;
   

   T. A. Sumberg, “ The Financial Experience of UNRRA,” American Journal of International Law 39 (Oct. 1945), 698–712; Grace Fox, “ The Origins of UNRRA,” Political Science Quarterly 64 (Dec. 1950), 561–84; R. H. John- son, “International Politics and the Structure of In- ternational Organization: The Case of UNRRA,” World Politics 3 (July 1951), 520–38; no monograph has been devoted to it. The official history is reasonably com- plete but is a heavily bureaucratic rendering of UN- RRA’s structure and activities. George Woodbridge, UNRRA: The History of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, 3 vols. (New York: Co- lumbia University Press, 1950). UNRRA has received short shrift from historians, despite its rich archival materials held in the United Nations archives. Cold War historians see it as a failed effort of international coop- eration; economic historians typically dismiss it as a
   

   curtain-raiser for the more substantial relief efforts of the Marshall Plan; and for military historians, UNRRA is depicted as a strange, meddlesome, amateurish op- eration totally out of its depth. Even its principal archi- tect, Dean Acheson, disowned it in his memoirs. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years at the State Department (New York: Norton, 1969), 64–80.
   

3. For early discussions on UNRRA, see Matthews to Secretary of State, February 26, 1942, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1942, 1: 92–98; Hull to Winant, May 7, 1942, ibid., 103–5; Memorandum of Conversation by Hull, August 22, 1942, ibid., 132–33; Draft Agreement for UNRRA, March 23, 1943, ibid., 890–95.
   

4. FDR cited by Cordell Hull, U.S. Secretary of State, to Sol Bloom, Chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Com- mittee, December 7, 1943, Department of State, Bul- letin, December 11, 1943, 416; and Franklin Roosevelt message to Congress, November 15, 1943, in Depart- ment of State, Bulletin, November 20, 1943, 372–73.
   

5. Dean Acheson, radio broadcast of December 18, 1943, and Francis B. Sayre, Special Assistant to the Secretary of State, speech of December 14, 1943, both in Depart- ment of State, Bulletin, December 18, 1943, 421–29.
   

6. Herbert H. Lehman, “Relief and Rehabilitation,” Foreign Policy Reports 19, no. 9, July 15, 1943, 102–5. The text was delivered to the Foreign Policy Association of New York on June 17, 1943.
   

7. Hugh Jackson to Gen. W. B. Smith, March 31, 1945; “Implementation of UNRRA/ Military Displaced Per- sons Program,” April 9, 1945; Smith to Jackson, April 11, 1945, NARA RG 333, Allied Operational and Occupation Headquarters, SHAEF G-5, Secretariat, Numeric File, box 51.
   

8. Lehman in Alan Nevins, Herbert H. Lehman and His Era (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1963), 226.
   

9. Vera Micheles Dean, “ UNRRA: A Step Towards Re- construction,” Foreign Policy Reports 19, 20, January 1, 1944, 266–70; Woodbridge, UNRRA III, Appendix Ten, 499–500.
   

10. Woodbridge, UNRRA III, Appendix Ten, 411–21.
    

11. Francesca M. Wilson, Aftermath: France, Germany, Austria, Yugoslavia, 1945 and 1946 (London: Penguin, 1947), 10, 23, 79, 131.
    

12. Diary, Rhoda Dawson [Mrs. R. N. Bickerdike], IWM 95/26/1.
    

13. Isabel Needham, Regional Nursing Consultant, Feb- ruary 20, 1945, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 42; News- letter of the Lake Erie Yearly Meeting, vol. 42, issue 2, Winter 2005, “Memorial Minute For Isabel Needham Bliss.”
    

14. Diary, Marie Pope Wallis Papers, Collection No. 1975- 053, box no. 3, serial No. 8582, folder 22, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe, New Mex- ico. For equally critical views of UNRRA see the mem- oir by Marvin Klemme, The Inside Story of UNRRA: An Experience in Internationalism (New York: Lifetime Editions, 1949), which is intemperate and hostile to the agency. A more subtle account that pokes fun at the pretensions of American relief workers is Edmund Wilson’s short story, “ Through the Abruzzi with Mat- tie and Harriet,” in Europe without Baedeker: Sketches Among the Ruins of Italy, Greece and England (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1947).
    

15. Nancy Hayward, UNRAA Greece, Region C, May 28, 1945, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.1.1.1, box 31.
    

16. Gwen Chesters, “Observations of the Functioning of the Camp Committee,” Tolumbat Refugee Camp, Egypt, February 13, 1945, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 39.
    

17. “In the Wake of the Armies,” May 1945, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 18.
    

18. Mark Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece: The Experi- ence of Occupation, 1941–1944 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993), 26–41.
    

19. “Magnitude and Urgency of the Need in Greece for UNRRA Supplies,” letter from Roy Hendrickson, UN- RRA Deputy Director General, to Will Clayton, Assis- tant Secretary of State, October 6, 1945, UNRRA, PAG- 4/1.3.0.3.1, box 18; and “Data for the State Department,” October 31, 1945, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 18.
    

20. Winston Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 6, Triumph and Tragedy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), 289.
    

21. UNRRA press release, December 16, 1944, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 18; Report of Christopher Janus, December 23, 1944, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.1.1.1, box 31.
    

22. “Relief and Rehabilitation Activities in Greece, Feb- ruary 3–March 2, 1945,” B. D. Rankin, Senior Economic Analyst, American Embassy Athens, March 8, 1945, UN- RRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 18.
    

23. Quarterly Report for July, August, and September,
    

    dated October 9, 1945, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 18; and Woodbridge, UNRRA II, 97–107.
    

24. Isabel Hunter report on trip to Greece, April 27–May 9, 1945; Hayward letter, May 28, 1945, in UNRRA, PAG- 4/1.3.1.1.1, box 31.
    

25. New York Times, May 28, 1945.
    

26. Herbert Lehman diary, C47-42.1, UNRRA Personal and General; Italy, Greece, and Yugoslavia Diary, July 5–August 20, 1945, Lehman Papers, Columbia Univer- sity.
    

27. Woodbridge, ed., UNRRA II, 137.
    

28. Statement by Brigadier Stayner, Deputy Chief, Greek Mission, January 5, 1946, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.1.1.1, box 29; and for details on supplies to Greece, statement re- ceived December 31, 1945, from UNRRA Mission Office, Athens, box 29, and memo from Hunt to Preston Kelly, April 18, 1946, box 30; and comment about fecal matter in October 15, 1945, Sanitation Section report, UNRRA, PAG-4/3.0.
    12
    .2.3, box 1.
    

29. Anne Dacie, “Refugee Work in a Camp for Displaced Persons in Ex-Enemy Territory,” January 18, 1945, UN- RRA, PAG-4/1.3.1.1.1, box 32.
    

30. C. R. S. Harris, Allied Military Administration of Italy, 1943–45 (London: HMSO, 1957); and for a superb anecdotal account of Naples in 1944, Norman Lewis, Naples ‘44 (New York: Pantheon, 1978).
    

31. Woodbridge, ed., UNRRA II, 265.
    

32. “Economic Conditions in Liberated Italy,” April 5, 1945, written by W. Zbijewski, compiled from various field reports, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.4.1, box 8.
    

33. Dr. Mario Volterra, letter, transmitted by George Xanthaky, Chief, Southern European Division, Bureau of Areas, UNRRA, to Edward E. Hunt, Chief, Italian Di- vision, Foreign Economic Administration, November 1, 1944, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.4.1, box 10.
    

34. Details of the Unitarian Service Committee’s Ital- ian Medical Nutrition Mission can be found in the USC archives, Harvard-Andover Theological Library, bMS 16103, box 1. Dr. Gollan’s report was delivered to the American Academy for the Advancement of Science on December 28, 1946, in Boston. USC archives, bMS 16103, box 69.
    

35. Figures compiled from monthly summary, Febru- ary 1946; and weekly summary, April 25, 1946, UNRRA, PAG-4/3.0.
    14
    .3.1.1, box 2.
    

36. “Lecce Camp Group, Breakdown of Nationality,” UNRRA, PAG-4/3.0.
    14
    .3.1.1, box 2.
    

37. Anne Dacie, “Refugee Work in a Camp for Displaced Persons in Ex-Enemy Territory,” January 18, 1945, UN- RRA, PAG-4/1.3.1.1.1, box 32.
    

38. Alan Hall letter to Joel Gordon in Washington, May 4, 1945, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 40; Sydney Mor- rell, director of public relations in Yugoslavia Mission, letter to Morse Salisbury and Leonard Ingram, from Dubrovnik, March 25, 1945, in UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 41.
    

39. The British-Yugoslav tangle during the war has been the subject of numerous postmortems, including many of the key British players. See F. W. D Deakin, The Em- battled Mountain (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971); and Phyllis Auty and Richard Clogg, eds., British Policy Towards Wartime Resistance in Yugoslavia and Greece (London: Macmillan, 1975), which has essays by key wartime British officials.
    

40. These accounts were written by Military Liaison of- ficers and some are digests of reports from the field. Major R. G. Edholm, to Sydney Morrell, February 1945 (no day given); report on “Montenegro: Economic Con-
    

    ditions,” October 8, 1944; report on the Banat, January 21, 1945; report on Bosnia, March 1945 (not dated); and report on “Belgrade Today,” November 24, 1944. All in UNRRA, PAG-4/3.0.
    23
    .0, box 44.
    

41. Milovan Djilas, Wartime, trans. by Michael B. Petrovich (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1977), 443–49.
    

42. Telegram, April 14, 1945, to Washington and London from Yugoslav office, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 39.
    

43. Morrell letter, March 15, 1945, UNRRA, PAG- 4/1.3.0.3.1, box 41.
    

44. Irving J. Fasteau, letter of April 1, 1945, to Miss Jane Hoey, Social Security Board, UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 42.
    

45. Broadcast texts, April 1946, UNRRA, PAG-4/3.0.
    23
    .0, box 51.
    

46. UNRRA nonetheless made great efforts to publicize its work, and explain how and why American aid was needed in Europe. For one of many examples see Fred K. Hoehler, “ What is UNRRA Doing?” Survey, April 1945.
    

47. Voluntary War Relief during World War II: A Report to the President, by Joseph Davies, Charles P. Taft, and Charles Warren (Washington D.C., March 1946); and Harold J. Seymour, Design for Giving: The Story of the National War Fund, 1943–1947 (New York: Harper, 1947), 70–71, for tally of disbursements of National War Fund.
    

48. The shape of the UNRRA–voluntary agencies agree- ments can be gleaned from documents in UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.1.1.1, box 21.
    

49. For example, see the critical coverage in New Re- public, March 25 and April 1, 1946; Nation, November 23 and 30, 1945, and March 23, 1946; Time, April 8, 1946.
    

50. Quoted in Dean, “ UNRRA,” 270.
    

51. Economist, August 24, 1946.
    

52. Acheson, Present at the Creation, 231.
    

53. Francis B. Sayre, Special Assistant to the Secretary of State, speech of December 14, 1943, in Department of State, Bulletin, December 18, 1943, 423–29.
    

54. Jean Newman, in UNRRA status report, May 27–June 2, 1945, filed by J. A. Edminson, Senior UNRRA Officer,
    

SHAEF, in NARA RG 331, Allied Operational and Occu- pation Headquarters, SHAEF G-5, box 52.

7: “A Tidal Wave of Nomad Peoples”

1. PRO, FO 945/559, September 18, 1945.

1. Ulrich Herbert, Hitler’s Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany under the Third Reich (Lon- don: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 298.
   

2. Malcolm J. Proudfoot, European Refugees, 1939–1952: A Study in Forced Population Movement (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1956), 80, 158–59. Lt. Col. Proudfoot (U.S. Army) served in Germany in the Combined Displaced Persons Executive and accumu- lated much of the material for his study in the field in 1945. It remains the most comprehensive account of the DP problem. Proudfoot’s charts claim that the Sovi- ets repatriated 6.8 million people from their own zone of occupied Germany and from Poland, including 5.2 million of their own nationals, as well as 700,000 Poles, 295,000 French, 210,000 Czechs, 160,000 Yugoslavs, and hundreds of thousands of others they uncovered in the east. This would put the total number of DPs in Europe at over 13 million. These figures, however, are extremely difficult to verify. The chapter focuses on
   

   DPs repatriated by SHAEF and UNRRA out of territory under occupation by western authorities.
   

3. SHAEF Field Handbook, August 26, 1944, cited in Henry L. Coles and Albert K. Weinberg, United States Army in World War II: Civil Affairs— Soldiers become Governors (Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief of Mil- itary History, 1964), 848.
   

4. U.S. Forces, European Theater, Study No. 35: “DPs, Refugees, and Recovered Allied Military Personnel,” (1945), cited in Coles and Weinberg, United States Army in World War II: Civil Affairs, 858.
   

5. UNRRA, PAG-4/1.3.0.3.1, box 11, “Psychological Prob- lems of Displaced Persons,” June 1945, prepared by European Regional Office of UNRRA, Inter-Allied Psy- chological Study Group.
   

6. Memo on “Guide to the Care of Displaced Persons,” May 18, 1945, Flow Chart drawn up in April 1945. NARA, RG 331, Allied Operational and Occupation Headquar- ters, SHAEF G-5, Secretariat, Numeric File, box 56.
   

7. SHAEF, G-5, DP Branch, Report no. 30, April 30, 1945, NARA, RG 331, Allied Operational and Occupa- tion Headquarters, SHAEF G-5, Secretariat, Numeric File, box 57.
   

8. Excerpt of G-5 Weekly Journal of Information, in Murphy to State Department, May 22, 1945, NARA, RG 84, Foreign Service Posts, U.S. Political Adviser to Ger- many (POLAD), box 34.
   

9. SHAEF, G-5, DP Branch, Report no. 30, April 30, 1945, NARA, RG 331, Allied Operational and Occupa- tion Headquarters, SHAEF G-5, Secretariat, Numeric File, box 57.
   

10. Marguerite Higgins, New York Herald Tribune, April 7, 1945, in NARA, RG 84, Foreign Service Posts, POLAD, box 34.
    

11. Primo Levi, The Reawakening, trans. by Stuart Woolf (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965), 120–21, 126.
    

12. PRO, CAB 66, 54, “Soviet Prisoners of War,” Sep- tember 3, 1945, including exchange of notes between Britain and Soviet Union, July 20, 1944, and August 23, 1944.
    

13. PRO, WO 219/2295, flyer signed by Lt. Col. Novikov, Soviet repatriation officer in Paris, November 11, 1944.
    

14. PRO, WO 219/2295, Headquarters, Southern Zone of Communication, to SHAEF headquarters, January 11, 1945; reports came from Bourg-Lastic in the Puy-
    

    de-Dôme; PRO, CAB 119/95, Eisenhower to Combined Chiefs of Staff, January 12, 1945; Eisenhower to Wash- ington, March 28, 1945; Bidault to British Ambassador in France, March 5, 1945.
    

15. PRO, WO 219/2295, treaty cabled in telegram from General John Deane to Washington, February 11, 1945. For additional insight into the making of this deal, see John R. Deane, The Strange Alliance: The Story of Our Efforts at Wartime Co-operation with Russia (New York: Viking, 1947), 182–201; PRO, WO 219/2295, Eisen- hower to Commanding General, April 8, 1945.
    

16. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The GULAG Archipelago, 1918–1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation, trans. by Thomas P. Whitney (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 237, 240, 243, 256.
    

17. PRO, WO 204/10449, “Evacuation of Cossack and Caucasian Forces from 36 Inf Bde Area, May–June 1945,” July 3, 1945, with accompanying testimony and statements by British officers. Nikolai Tolstoy has writ- ten two tendentious books on the subject of the Cos- sacks and their fate. The Secret Betrayal (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1977); and The Minister and the Massacres (London: Century Hutchinson, 1986), which claims that Harold Macmillan, then serving as
    

    Political Adviser to the Allied Commander-in- Chief, conspired within the British government to surrender various endangered Soviet peoples to the Red Army at the end of the war.
    

18. Marguerite Duras, The War: A Memoir, trans. by Barbara Bray (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 61. The original title of Duras’s book was La Douleur, or “Pain”—a far more appropriate title for this melan- choly, distressing book.
    

19. Duras, The War, 55–61.
    

20. Laure Adler, Marguerite Duras: A Life, trans. by Anne-Marie Glasheen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 101–27.
    

21. Adler, Marguerite Duras, 141–44.
    

22. Henri Frenay, “Réponse aux rapports de Mme. Olga Wormser et de M. Boudot,” in Comité d’Histoire de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale, La Libération de la France (Paris: CNRS, 1976), 739–744. For numbers of Jews killed, see Michael R. Marrus and Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1981), 343.
    

23. Henri Frenay, The Night Will End, trans. by Dan
    

    Hofstadter (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), 390; for numbers of returnees, Malcolm J. Proudfoot, Euro- pean Refugees, 1939–52: A Study in Forced Population Movement (London: Faber & Faber, 1957), 193.
    

24. For a fascinating study of the impact of captivity on French society, see Sarah Fishman, We Will Wait: Wives of French Prisoners of War, 1940–1945 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1991), which is broader than the title suggests. A nuanced discussion of the re- ception of deportees in the provinces is given by Me- gan Koreman, “A Hero’s Homecoming: The Return of the Deportees to France, 1945,” Journal of Contempo- rary History 32 (1), 1997, 9–22.
    

25. Pieter Lagrou, The Legacy of Nazi Occupation: Pa- triotic Memory and National Recovery in Western Eu- rope, 1945–1965 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 2000), 106–28; Yves Durand, La captivité: Histoire des prisonniers de guerre français, 1939–1945 (Paris: FNCPG, 1980), 324.
    

26. Christophe Lewin, Le retour des prisonniers de guerre français (Paris: Sorbonne, 1986), 82–83.
    

27. For a sensitive summary of the grievances of the re- turning prisoners, see Robert Gauthier’s editorial in Le
    

    Monde, “Manifestations de prisonniers,” June 7, 1945. On the difficulties of returning to family life, see Fish- man, We Will Wait, 150–67.
    

28. The Communist paper in Marseilles, La Marseil- laise, vigorously denounced the handling of the re- turning prisoners in that port city. See issues of May 16, May 20, May 23, and June 1, 1945.
    

29. Frenay, Night Will End, 399, 410–11. Frenay, years later, refused to accept any blame for the shortages and inefficiencies of the repatriation. Indeed, he was proud of his record. See his comments in his “Réponse,” in La Libération de la France.
    

30. François Cochet, Les exclus de la victoire: Histoire des prisonniers de guerre, déportés, et STO, 1945–1985 (Paris: Kronos, 1992), 234–35; Henry Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944, trans. by Arthur Goldhammer (Cambridge, Mass.: Har- vard University Press, 1991), 25–26.
    

31. Proudfoot, European Refugees, 197–98.
    

32. Olga Wormser-Migot, “Le rapatriement des dépor- tés,” in Comité d’histoire de la deuxième guerre mon- diale, La Libération de la France, 726. For a detailed study of the comments in the French press on the return
    

    of deportees, see “Revue de Presse,” in Marie-Anne Matard-Bonucci and Edouard Lynch, eds., La Libéra- tion des camps et Le Retour des déportés: L’Histoire en souffrance (Paris: Editions Complexe, 1995), 177–99.
    

33. Janet Flanner, The New Yorker, April 28, 1945, in Reporting World War II, part 2, American Journalism, 1944–1946 (New York: Library of America, 1995), pp. 689–93.
    

34. Jacqueline Fleury, in Matard-Bonucci and Lynch, eds., La Libération des camps, 136.
    

35. Esther S. (HVT-2827), Fortunoff Video Archive, Yale University Library.
    

36. Louise Alcan, in Le Grand Livre des Témoins, com- piled by the Fédération Nationale des Déportés et In- ternés Résistants et Patriotes (Paris: Ramsay, 1995), 305; Max L. (HVT-3221), Fortunoff Video Archive, Yale University Library.
    

37. Amanda S. (HVT-3469), Fortunoff Video Archive, Yale University Library; Liliane Lévy- Osbert, Grand Livre des Témoins, 305.
    

38. Jacqueline Fleury, in Matard-Bonucci and Lynch, eds., La Libération des camps, 136.
    

39. Isidore R. (HVT-3452), Fortunoff Video Archive, Yale University Library.
    

40. Charles B. (HVT-2100), Fortunoff Video Archive, Yale University Library; Alexandre Kohn, in Matard- Bonucci and Lynch, eds., La Libération des camps, 133; and Mary-Rose Mathis-Izikowitz, in ibid., 133. See also Daniel Regen’s testimony in Grand Livres des Témoins, 308.
    

41. Charlotte Delbo, Auschwitz and After (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 276.
    

42. Anne-Marie Soucelier, quoted in Matard-Bonucci and Lynch, eds., La Libération des camps, 148.
    

43. Françoise, in Delbo, Auschwitz and After, 348.
    

44. Kathryn Hulme, The Wild Place (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953). The notes, documents, and letters from which Hulme drew when writing the memoir are kept at the Beinecke Library, Yale University, YCAL MSS 22, especially box 5. Quotation from box 5, folder 92.
    

45. Proudfoot, European Refugees, 281; and for esti- mates of Polish DPs in SHAEF area, Tedder to London, July 3, 1945, NARA, RG 331, Allied Operations and Oc- cupation Headquarters, SHAEF G-5, box 49.
    

46. Descriptions drawn from Army G-5 Inspection Re- port, Capt H. E. McDonald, Displaced Persons Branch, September 5–6, 1945, in UNRRA, S-0436-0008; Team 302 orders, July 21, 1945, UNRRA, S-0436-0008; in- spection by Andrew Truelson, UNRRA Field Supervi- sor, September 19, 1945, UNRRA, S-0436-0008; Hulme, The Wild Place, 3, 5.
    

47. Hulme, The Wild Place, 28; Hulme Papers, Beinecke Library, box 5, folder 92.
    

48. Hulme Papers, Beinecke Library, box 5, folder 92.
    

49. Hulme, The Wild Place, 12.
    

50. Masset to J. H. Whiting, District Director, UNRRA Eastern Military District, Third Army HQ, September 13, 1945, and October 11, 1945; Col. R. J. Wallace, “In- spection of DP Camp Wildflecken,” October 22, 1945; Masset to A. C. Dunn, Regional Supervisor, UNRRA, November 22, 1945, and December 14, 1945, UNRRA, S-0436-0008.
    

51. Hulme, The Wild Place, 90–92.
    

52. Hulme Papers, Beinecke Library, box 5, folder 92.
    

53. Hulme Papers, Beinecke Library, box 5, folder 92.
    

54. Hulme, The Wild Place, 110–20, 126.
    

55. Eisenhower order, September 20, 1945, NARA, RG 260 Records of U.S. Occupation Headquarters, WWII,
    

    U.S. Group Control Council (USGCC), Adjutant Gen- eral, General Correspondence, 1944–45, 383.6–383.8, box 25.
    

56. Montgomery cables to Foreign Office and War Of- fice, August 6 and 17, 1945, and Foreign Office to Mont- gomery, August 14, 1945, PRO, FO 945/595; British Con- trol Commission memo, December 4, 1945, PRO, FO 1032/821; USFET Commander to Commanders, Third and Seventh Armies, November 24, 1945, NARA, RG 260 Records of the U.S. Occupation Headquarters, WWII, Office of Military Government for Germany (OMGUS), Records of the Executive Office, Office of the Adjutant General, General Correspondence, box 91.
    

57. Hulme, The Wild Place, 47, 151–52; statement by H. Brining, Acting Director, UNRRA Team 16/72, Düssel- dorf, November 17, 1945, UNRRA, S-0408-0009; Proud- foot, European Refugees, 282–84.