Colons
A
colon
means “that is to say” or “here's what I mean.” Colons and semicolons should never be used interchangeably.
Rule 1
. Use a colon to introduce a series of items. Do not capitalize the first item after the colon (unless it's a proper noun).
Examples
:
| You may be required to bring many things: sleeping bags, pans, utensils, and warm clothing
.
|
I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour
.
|
I need an assistant who can do the following: input data, write reports, and complete tax forms
.
|
Rule 2
. Avoid using a colon before a list when it directly follows a verb or preposition.
Incorrect
:
| I want: butter, sugar, and flour
.
|
Correct
:
| I want the following: butter, sugar, and flour
.
|
OR
|
I want butter, sugar, and flour
.
|
Incorrect
:
| I've seen the greats, including: Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep
.
|
Correct
:
| I've seen the greats, including Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep
.
|
Rule 3
. When listing items one by one, one per line, following a colon, capitalization and ending punctuation are optional when using single words or phrases preceded by letters, numbers, or bullet points. If each point is a complete sentence, capitalize the first word and end the sentence with appropriate ending punctuation. Otherwise, there are no hard and fast rules, except be consistent.
Examples
:
| I want an assistant who can do the following:
|
a.
input data
b.
write reports
c.
complete tax forms
|
The following are requested:
|
- Wool sweaters for possible cold weather.
- Wet suits for snorkeling.
- Introductions to the local dignitaries.
|
These are the pool rules:
|
1.
Do not run.
2.
If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard.
3.
Did you remember your towel?
4.
Have fun!
|
Rule 4
. A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses when the second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first sentence.
Example
:
| He got what he worked for: he really earned that promotion
.
|
If a complete sentence follows a colon, as in the previous example, it is up to the writer to decide whether to capitalize the first word. Although generally advisable, capitalizing a sentence after a colon is often a judgment call.
Note
: A capital letter generally does not introduce a simple phrase following a colon.
Example
:
| He got what he worked for: a promotion
.
|
Rule 5
. A colon may be used to introduce a long quotation. Some style manuals say to indent one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent only on the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.
Example
:
| The author of
Touched,
Jane Straus, wrote in the first chapter
:
|
Georgia went back to her bed and stared at the intricate patterns of burned moth wings in the translucent glass of the overhead light. Her father was in
“
hyper mode
”
again where nothing could calm him down
.
|
Rule 6
. Use a colon rather than a comma to follow the salutation in a business letter, even when addressing someone by his or her first name. (Never use a semicolon after a salutation.) A comma is used after the salutation in more informal correspondence.
Formal
:
| Dear Ms. Rodriguez
:
|
Informal
:
| Dear Dave
,
|
The rules set forth in this section are customary in the United States. Great Britain and other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations are governed by quite different conventions. Nowhere is this more apparent than in Rule 3a in this section, a rule that has the advantage of being far simpler than Britain's and the disadvantage of being far less logical.
Rule 1
. Use double quotation marks to set off a direct (word-for-word) quotation.
Correct
:
| “
When will you be here?
”
he asked
.
|
Incorrect
:
| He asked
“
when I would be there
.”
|
Rule 2
. Either quotation marks or italics are customary for titles: magazines, books, plays, films, songs, poems, article titles, chapter titles, etc.
Rule 3a
. Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks.
Examples
:
| The sign said
, “
Walk.
”
Then it said,
“
Don't Walk,
”
then
, “
Walk,
”
all within thirty seconds
.
|
He yelled,
“
Hurry up
.”
|
Rule 3b
. Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations.
Example
:
| He said,
“
Dan cried,
â
Do not treat me that way
.' ”
|
Note that the period goes inside both the single and double quotation marks.
Rule 4
. As a courtesy, make sure there is visible space at the start or end of a quotation between adjacent single and double quotation marks. (Your word processing program may do this automatically.)
Not ample space
:
| He said,
“
Dan cried,
â
Do not treat me that way
.'”
|
Ample space
:
| He said,
“
Dan cried,
â
Do not treat me that way
.' ”
|
Rule 5a
. Quotation marks are often used with technical terms, terms used in an unusual way, or other expressions that vary from standard usage.
Examples
:
| It's an oil-extraction method known as
“
fracking
.”
|
He did some “experimenting” in his college days
.
|
I had a visit from my “friend” the tax man
.
|
Rule 5b
. Never use single quotation marks in sentences like the previous three.
Incorrect
:
I had a visit from my âfriend' the tax man
.
The single quotation marks in the above sentence are intended to send a message to the reader that
friend
is being used in a special way: in this case, sarcastically. Avoid this invalid usage. Single quotation marks are valid only within a quotation, as per Rule 3b, above.
Rule 6
. When quoted material runs more than one paragraph, start each new paragraph with opening quotation marks, but do not use closing quotation marks until the end of the passage.
Example
:
| She wrote:
“
I don't paint anymore. For a while I thought it was just a phase that I'd get over
.
|
“
Now, I don't even try
.”
|
Parentheses
and
brackets
must never be used interchangeably.
Parentheses
Rule 1
. Use parentheses to enclose information that clarifies or is used as an aside.
Example
:
| He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand the question
.
|
If material in parentheses ends a sentence, the period goes after the parentheses.
Example
:
| He gave me a nice bonus ($500)
.
|
Commas could have been used in the first example; a colon could have been used in the second example. The use of parentheses indicates that the writer considered the information less importantâalmost an afterthought.
Rule 2
. Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses.
Example
:
| Please read the analysis. (You'll be amazed.)
|
This is a rule with a lot of wiggle room. An entire sentence in parentheses is often acceptable without an enclosed period:
Example
:
| Please read the analysis (you'll be amazed)
.
|
Rule 3
. Parentheses, despite appearances, are not part of the subject.
Example
:
| Joe (and his trusty mutt)
was
always welcome
.
|
If this seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence:
Example
:
| Joe (accompanied by his trusty mutt)
was
always welcome
.
|
Rule 4
. Commas are more likely to follow parentheses than precede them.
Incorrect
:
| When he got home, (it was already dark outside) he fixed dinner
.
|
Correct
:
| When he got home (it was already dark outside), he fixed dinner
.
|
Brackets are far less common than parentheses, and they are only used in special cases. Brackets (like single quotation marks) are used exclusively within quoted material.
Rule 1
. Brackets are interruptions. When we see them, we know they've been added by someone else. They are used to explain or comment on the quotation.
Examples
:
| “
Four score and seven [today we'd say eighty-seven] years ago
⦔
|
“
Bill shook hands with [his son] Al
.”
|
Rule 2
. When quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material in a confusing way, insert the term
sic
in italics and enclose it in nonitalic (unless the surrounding text is italic) brackets.
Sic
(“thus” in Latin) is shorthand for, “This is exactly what the original material says.”
Example
:
| She wrote,
“
I would rather die then [
sic
] be seen wearing the same outfit as my sister
.”
|
The [
sic
] indicates that
then
was mistakenly used instead of
than
.
|
Rule 3
. In formal writing, brackets are often used to maintain the integrity of both a quotation and the sentences others use it in.
Example
:
| “
[T]he better angels of our nature
”
gave a powerful ending to Lincoln's first inaugural address
.
|
Lincoln's memorable phrase came midsentence, so the word
the
was not originally capitalized.
|
Rule 1a
. Use the
apostrophe
to show possession. To show possession with a singular noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter
s
.
Examples
:
| a woman's hat
|
the boss's wife
|
Mrs. Chang's house
|
Rule 1b
. Many common nouns end in the letter
s
(
lens, cactus, bus
, etc.). So do a lot of proper nouns (
Mr. Jones, Texas, Christmas
). There are conflicting policies and theories about how to show possession when writing such nouns. There is no right answer; the best advice is to choose a formula and stay consistent.
Rule 1c
. Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe to all nouns ending in
s
. And some add an apostrophe +
s
to every proper noun, be it
Hastings's
or
Jones's
.
One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe +
s
('
s
) to common nouns ending in
s
, but only a stand-alone apostrophe to proper nouns ending in
s
.
Examples
:
| the class's hours
|
Mr. Jones' golf clubs
|
the canvas's size
|
Texas' weather
|
Care must be taken to place the apostrophe outside the word in question. For instance, if talking about a pen belonging to Mr. Hastings, many people would wrongly write
Mr. Hasting's pen
(his name is not Mr. Hasting).
Correct
:
| Mr. Hastings' pen
|
Another widely used technique is to write the word as we would speak it. For example, since most people saying, “Mr. Hastings' pen” would not pronounce an added
s
, we would write
Mr. Hastings' pen
with no added
s
. But most people would pronounce an added
s
in “Jones's,” so we'd write it as we say it:
Mr. Jones's golf clubs
. This method explains the punctuation of
for goodness' sake
.
Rule 2a
.
Regular nouns
are nouns that form their plurals by adding either the letter
s
or -
es
(
guy
,
guys; letter
,
letters; actress
,
actresses;
etc.). To show plural possession, simply put an apostrophe after the
s
.
Correct
:
| guys' night out
(
guy
+
s
+ apostrophe)
|
Incorrect
:
| guy's night out
(implies only one guy)
|
Correct
:
| two actresses' roles
(
actress
+
es
+ apostrophe)
|
Incorrect
:
| two actress's roles
|
Rule 2b
. Do not use an apostrophe +
s
to make a regular noun plural.
Incorrect
:
| Apostrophe's are confusing
.
|
Correct
:
| Apostrophes are confusing
.
|
Incorrect
:
| We've had many happy Christmas's
.
|
Correct
:
| We've had many happy Christmases
.
|
In special cases, such as when forming a plural of a word that is not normally a noun, some writers add an apostrophe for clarity.
Example
:
| Here are some do's and don'ts
.
|
In that sentence, the verb
do
is used as a plural noun, and the apostrophe was added because the writer felt that
dos
was confusing. Not all writers agree; some see no problem with
dos and don'ts
.
Rule 2c
. English also has many
irregular nouns
(
child, nucleus, tooth
, etc.). These nouns become plural by changing their spelling, sometimes becoming quite different words. You may find it helpful to write out the entire irregular plural noun before adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe +
s
.
Incorrect
:
| two childrens' hats
|
The plural is
children
, not
childrens
.
|
Correct
:
| two children's hats
(
children
+ apostrophe +
s
)
|
Incorrect
:
| the teeths' roots
|
Correct
:
| the teeth's roots
|
Rule 2d
. Things can get really confusing with the possessive plurals of proper names ending in
s
, such as
Hastings
and
Jones
.
If you're the guest of the Ford familyâthe
Fords
âyou're the
Fords
' guest (
Ford
+
s
+ apostrophe). But what if it's the Hastings family?
Most would call them the “Hastings.” But that would refer to a family named “Hasting.” If someone's name ends in
s
, we must add -
es
for the plural. The plural of
Hastings
is
Hastingses
. The members of the Jones family are the
Joneses
.
To show possession, add an apostrophe.
Incorrect
:
| the Hastings' dog
|
Correct
:
| the Hastingses' dog
(
Hastings
+
es
+ apostrophe)
|
Incorrect
:
| the Jones' car
|
Correct
:
| the Joneses' car
|
In serious writing, this rule must be followed no matter how strange or awkward the results.
Rule 2e
. Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural.
Incorrect
:
| The Wilson's are here
.
|
Correct
:
| The Wilsons are here
.
|
Incorrect
:
| We visited the Sanchez's
.
|
Correct
:
| We visited the Sanchezes
.
|
Rule 3
. With a singular compound noun (for example,
mother-in-law
), show possession with an apostrophe +
s
at the end of the word.
Example
:
| my mother-in-law's hat
|
If the compound noun (e.g.,
brother-in-law
) is to be made plural, form the plural first (
brothers-in-law
), and then use the apostrophe +
s
.
Example
:
| my two brothers-in-law's hats
|
Rule 4
. If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe +
s
after the second name only.
Example
:
| Cesar and Maribel's home is constructed of redwood
.
|
However, if one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the possessive form for both.
Incorrect
:
| Maribel and my home
|
Correct
:
| Maribel's and my home
|
Incorrect
:
| he and Maribel's home
|
Incorrect
:
| him and Maribel's home
|
Correct
:
| his and Maribel's home
|
In cases of separate rather than joint possession, use the possessive form for both.
Examples
:
| Cesar's and Maribel's homes are both lovely
.
|
They don't own the homes jointly.
|
Cesar and Maribel's homes are both lovely
.
|
The homes belong to both of them.
|
Rule 5
. Use an apostrophe with
contractions
. The apostrophe is placed where a letter or letters have been removed.
Examples
:
| doesn't, wouldn't, it's, can't, you've
, etc.
|
Incorrect
:
| does'nt
|
Rule 6
. There are various approaches to plurals for initials, capital letters, and numbers used as nouns.
Examples
:
| She consulted with three M.D.s
.
|
She consulted with three M.D.'s
.
|
Some write
M.D.'s
to give the
s
separation from the second period.
|
Many writers and editors prefer an apostrophe after single capital letters only:
Examples
:
| I made straight A's
.
|
He learned his ABCs
.
|
There are different schools of thought about years and decades. The following examples are all in widespread use:
Examples
:
|
the 1990s
|
the 1990's
|
the '90s
|
the 90's
|
Awkward
:
| the '90's
|
Rule 7
. Amounts of time or money are sometimes used as possessive adjectives that require apostrophes.
Incorrect
:
| three days leave
|
Correct
:
| three days' leave
|
Incorrect
:
| my two cents worth
|
Correct
:
| my two cents' worth
|
Rule 8
. The personal pronouns
hers, ours, yours, theirs, its, whose
, and
oneself
never take an apostrophe.
Example
:
| Feed a horse grain. It's better for its health
.
|
Rule 9
. When an apostrophe comes before a word or number, take care that it's truly an apostrophe (
'
) rather than a single quotation mark (
â
).
Incorrect
:
| â
Twas the night before Christmas
.
|
Correct
:
| '
Twas the night before Christmas
.
|
Incorrect
:
| I voted in
â
08
.
|
Correct
:
| I voted in
'
08
.
|
Note
Serious writers avoid the word '
til
as an alternative to
until
. The correct word is
till
, which is many centuries older than
until
.
Rule 10
. Beware of
false possessives
, which often occur with nouns ending in
s
. Don't add apostrophes to noun-derived adjectives ending in
s
. Close analysis is the best guide.
Incorrect
:
| We enjoyed the New Orleans' cuisine
.
|
In the preceding sentence, the word
the
makes no sense unless
New Orleans
is being used as an adjective to describe
cuisine
. In English, nouns frequently become adjectives. Adjectives rarely if ever take apostrophes.
Incorrect
:
| I like that Beatles' song
.
|
Correct
:
| I like that Beatles song
.
|
Again,
Beatles
is an adjective, modifying
song
.
Incorrect
:
| He's a United States' citizen
.
|
Correct
:
| He's a United States citizen
.
|
Rule 11
. Beware of nouns ending in
y;
do not show possession by changing the
y
to -
ies
.
Correct
:
| the company's policy
|
Incorrect
:
| the companies policy
|
Correct
:
| three companies' policies
|