Read The Jewish Annotated New Testament Online
Authors: Amy-Jill Levine
STRUCTURE AND GENRE
The story of Jesus’ days in Jerusalem—the trial, crucifixion, and burial—are referred to as the passion narrative, and although Mark is sometimes characterized as a passion narrative with a long introduction, the Gospel as a whole is much more comprehensive in its structure than would be the case if the first ten chapters served merely as a prologue to the Passion.
1.1–15 | Introduction |
1.16–8.21 | Enacting the kingdom of God |
8.22–10.52 | Passion predictions and radical social teachings |
11.1–16.8 | Passion narrative and death |
Scholars continue to debate the literary category of Mark. The “gospel genre” is not found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, rabbinic literature, or other Jewish sources. Although the contemporary Jewish philosopher Philo composed a long biography of Moses (
Life of Moses
), rabbinic literature interwove biographical episodes of important figures into the larger discourses on law and scripture. Various terms were used by Christians in the second century to describe the texts about Jesus—reminiscences, histories, gospels—but none of these terms goes back to the first century as a reference to a particular kind of book (“good news” or “gospel” in Mk 1.1 refers to the message or preaching, not the book of Mark as a whole). Some have argued in modern times that the Gospels were a new and distinctive type of writing invented by the followers of Jesus, but many scholars now argue that the Gospels, including that of Mark, are similar to ancient genres. The Gospels created longer and more connected narratives of their subject than were found in the stories of the rabbis, more in keeping with Greek (
bios
) and Roman biography. However, the usual ethos of an ancient biography was to present a continuing model of virtues. As a result, other scholars classify Mark (if not the other Gospels) not as a biography but as a kind of apocalyptic history based on biblical history.
The contents of the book and its style have also suggested similarities to other genres as well. Central to Mark are the prophetic stances of John the Baptist and Jesus, and parallels to the biblical prophets are prominent (see annotations). Other aspects of Mark’s narrative have been compared to ancient novels and the epics of Homer. The heart of Mark’s narrative, however, is the depiction of the tragic end of a divinely favored figure—a messiah, Son of God, Son of Man—who is also very human. This depiction is influenced by Jewish traditions of the suffering servant (Isa 52–53), psalms of lament (e.g., Ps 22), and the persecuted righteous person (Wis 2–5). In keeping with these texts, Mark tells a story in which Jesus suffers a downward spiral of being abandoned by those around him. Jesus has a conflictual relationship with Pharisees, Herodians, and scribes, but it is often wrongly assumed that he is consistently embraced by others. Jesus is eventually rejected by all of “his people”—however that may be understood. He was rejected by Jews and Gentiles: family (3.19b–21), townspeople (6.1–6), Gentiles who witness his healing power (5.17), Peter (8.32; 14.71), disciples (14.50), chief priests and Sanhedrin, and the “crowd” influenced by them (ch. 14; 15.8,11,15), those who “passed by” (15.29), the two men crucified with him (15.32), and finally, even God (15.34).
SOME KEY THEMES: IRONY AND THE “MESSIANIC SECRET”
Mark, in keeping with many of the authors of the Jewish Scriptures, was a master of irony. Dramatic irony is the potentially profound reading experience that occurs when the audience knows things that the characters themselves do not perceive. Irony suggests that there is a real truth behind appearances: the reader who understands the irony understands God’s ultimate purpose. It is often assumed, for example, that the Gospel of Mark presented a very human Jesus (called “low Christology”) because it was early and the idea of a fully divine Christ had not yet been articulated. But “high Christologies” of a divine or pre-existent Christ also existed at a very early stage (Phil 2.6–11), and Mark may have deliberately sought to minimize divine or heavenly claims for Jesus (16.5n.). At times Jesus is even said to be lacking in power (6.5) or faith (14.36; 15.34), but the audience already knows the ending of the story: Jesus is the true Messiah and will be resurrected and vindicated by God. Thus there is an ironic distance between the expectation of a triumphant Jesus and the depiction of a struggling messiah. It is probably for this reason that a triumphant conclusion to the story is not included (16.8)—a final irony.
One of the most important examples of irony in Mark is the messianic secret: at a number of points Jesus commands people not to tell anyone about what they have witnessed. Indeed, in some Jewish texts of this period it is stated that the identity of the messiah, or the time of his coming, is hidden until the very end (2 Esd [
4 Ezra
] 7.28;
1 En
. 62.7;
b. Pesah
. 54b;
b. Sanh
. 97a). But in 1901, the German scholar William Wrede attributed the reason for these commands of secrecy not to Jesus but to Mark’s own attempt to make sense of why more people did not embrace Jesus as messiah during his lifetime. Despite the power of the messianic secret theme (taken up also by Matthew and Luke, but almost totally lacking in John), it is still not clear what it would have communicated to the first audience. The messianic secret could be a narrative technique, the use of irony to increase awe of Jesus (that is, the audience knows the true meaning of the secret). It may suggest to the audience that a “low profile” is the best response to persecution. It may also reflect Mark’s tendency to contrast expectations of Jesus’ triumph with the difficulties Jesus actually encounters, including the crucifixion. Mark thus carries the messianic secret through to the end by minimizing the apocalyptic expectations of vindication (ch 13) and the triumphal appearance of a risen Christ (ch 16). The Gospel communicates the idea that Jesus’ messianic identity ironically includes suffering and death, and it cannot be fully understood until after his resurrection; thus the Gospel’s audience fully understands Jesus’ significance, even though the disciples are depicted as not completely understanding it during his lifetime. Mark depicts a more human and vulnerable Jesus than is encountered in the Gospel of John, for example.
The deceptive simplicity of Mark came to be fully appreciated in the late twentieth century, as literary scholars and theologians alike took note of its arresting narrative realism: whether the stories themselves actually happened, they are told realistically and with evocative details of everyday life. Mark, more than the other Gospels, never loses sight of the real lives of ordinary people—the economic and the social, the earthly over the cosmic, the present over the future.
Lawrence M. Wills
1
The beginning of the good news
*
of Jesus Christ, the Son of God.
*
2
As it is written in the prophet Isaiah,
*
“See, I am sending my messenger ahead
of you,
*
who will prepare your way;
3
the voice of one crying out in the
wilderness:
‘Prepare the way of the Lord,
make his paths straight,’”
4
John the baptizer appeared
*
in the wilderness, proclaiming a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins.
5
And people from the whole Judean countryside and all the people of Jerusalem were going out to him, and were baptized by him in the river Jordan, confessing their sins.
6
Now John was clothed with camel’s hair, with a leather belt around his waist, and he ate locusts and wild honey.
7
He proclaimed, “The one who is more powerful than I is coming after me; I am not worthy to stoop down and untie the thong of his sandals.
8
I have baptized you with
*
water; but he will baptize you with
*
the Holy Spirit.”
9
In those days Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan.
10
And Just as he was coming up out of the water, he saw the heavens torn apart and the Spirit descending like a dove on him.
11
And a voice came from heaven, “You are my Son, the Beloved;
*
with you I am well pleased.”
12
And the Spirit immediately drove him out into the wilderness.
13
He was in the wilderness forty days, tempted by Satan; and he was with the wild beasts; and the angels waited on him.
14
Now after John was arrested, Jesus came to Galilee, proclaiming the good news
*
of God,
*
15
and saying, “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God has come near;
*
repent, and believe in the good news.”
*
16
As Jesus passed along the Sea of Galilee, he saw Simon and his brother Andrew casting a net into the sea—for they were fishermen.
17
And Jesus said to them, “Follow me and I will make you fish for people.”
18
And immediately they left their nets and followed him.
19
As he went a little farther, he saw James son of Zebedee and his brother John, who were in their boat mending the nets.
20
Immediately he called them; and they left their father Zebedee in the boat with the hired men, and followed him.
21
They went to Capernaum; and when the sabbath came, he entered the synagogue and taught.
22
They were astounded at his teaching, for he taught them as one having authority, and not as the scribes.
23
Just then there was in their synagogue a man with an unclean spirit,
24
and he cried out, “What have you to do with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are, the Holy One of God.”
25
But Jesus rebuked him, saying, “Be silent, and come out of him!”
26
And the unclean spirit, convulsing him and crying with a loud voice, came out of him.
27
They were all amazed, and they kept on asking one another, “What is this? A new teaching—with authority! He
*
commands even the unclean spirits, and they obey him.”
28
At once his fame began to spread throughout the surrounding region of Galilee.
29
As soon as they
*
left the synagogue, they entered the house of Simon and Andrew, with James and John.
30
Now Simon’s mother-in-law was in bed with a fever, and they told him about her at once.
31
He came and took her by the hand and lifted her up. Then the fever left her, and she began to serve them.
32
That evening, at sunset, they brought to him all who were sick or possessed with demons.
33
And the whole city was gathered around the door.
34
And he cured many who were sick with various diseases, and cast out many demons; and he would not permit the demons to speak, because they knew him.
35
In the morning, while it was still very dark, he got up and went out to a deserted place, and there he prayed.
36
And Simon and his companions hunted for him.
37
When they found him, they said to him, “Everyone is searching for you.”
38
He answered, “Let us go on to the neighboring towns, so that I may proclaim the message there also; for that is what I came out to do.”
39
And he went throughout Galilee, proclaiming the message in their synagogues and casting out demons.