Read The Jewish Annotated New Testament Online
Authors: Amy-Jill Levine
4
:
The faith
, a communal confession about God’s revelation through Christ; the definite article makes it a technical term, unlike Paul’s use of “faith” (“pistis”), which connotes relationship rather than doctrine (see Rom 3.22).
Savior
(“soteros”), used once in the undisputed Pauline corpus (Phil 3.20) but ten times in the Pastorals. Savior language is never associated with hopes for a messiah in Jewish literature, except in the NT, where God’s saving actions are made manifest through Jesus (whose name means “God saves”). Salvation has multiple dimensions, including present-oriented righteous living and future-oriented eternal life.
1.5
–9: Qualifications for elders.
5
: Only canonical reference to a Pauline mission to
Crete
. Tacitus (
Hist
. 5.2) states Crete had a sizeable Jewish community.
Elders
(“presbyteroi”), an early church office (see Acts 20.17,28) that may have developed among the Jewish Jesus-followers in Jerusalem (see Acts 11.30; 15.4). A fourth-century CE epitaph from Crete identifies as Jewish a woman named Sophia; she is both “elder” (“presbyter”) and “synagogue leader” (“archisynagogos”). The position of “elder” in Titus parallels leadership positions in Judaism, where elders (usually older men) were respected for piety and wisdom (Ex 3.16; Num 11.16; see also Jdt 8.10; Sus 1.5); the NT frequently lists elders with chief priests (Mt 16.21; Lk 9.22).
6
:
Married only once
, marriage was an important qualification for Jewish community leaders because of the emphasis on family (see Gen 1.28), although some early apocalyptic communities advocated celibacy or separation from one’s spouse after the commandment to procreate had been fulfilled (1QSa 1.6–13; 1QM 7.2–4). Only in the Middle Ages did the Roman Catholic Church require celibacy for clergy (see Mt 19.12; 1 Cor 7.7,32–35).
7
:
Bishop
(“episkopos”), lit., “overseer,” an early Christian office (Phil 1.1; 1 Tim 3.1–7; 5.17–22). Titus equates bishop and elder. It is possible that in the older church 1 Timothy represents, bishops evolved from a larger group of elders, gaining preeminence as teachers (1 Tim 3.1; 5.17), while in the younger churches Titus mentions, such distinctions had not appeared.
1.10
–16: Community controversies.
10
:
Of the circumcision
, a reference to Jewish followers of Jesus and/or Gentile followers who submitted to circumcision; see Acts 11.2; 15.5; Gal 2.12; Rom 2:25–29; 1 Cor 7.18–19; Col 4.11.
11
: S
ilenced
, lit., “reined in,” refers to the muzzling of horses.
12
: The proverb is attributed to Epimenides, a sixth-century Cretan. In its original context, it was a mind teaser. Paul quotes Epimenides in Acts 17.28.
14
:
Jewish
(Gk “Ioudaikos”) occurs only here in the NT (in the LXX, only in 2 Macc 8.11; 13.21), although both Josephus and Philo use the adjective.
Myths … commandments
, disparaging reference to interpretations of stories (“haggadah”) and law (“halakhah”). On
myths
see 1 Tim 1.4; 4.7; 2 Tim 4.4; 2 Pet 1.16. The reference is probably to midrashic and pseudepigraphical stories.
15
:
Pure
, possible reference to Jewish purity codes, especially concerning food (Lev 11).
Consciences
, see Acts 23.1; 24.16; 1 Tim 1.5,19; 3.9; 4.2; 2 Tim 1.3; Heb 10.22; 13.18; 1 Pet 3.16,21.
16
:
Actions
, indicators of proper belief, as in 1.1 where “knowledge of the truth” is linked to “godliness.”
2.1
–10: Household rules.
Household codes (“Haustafeln”) appear also in Col 3.18–4.1; Eph 5.21–6.9; 1 Pet 3.1–7, except without the reciprocal duties of the male householder. The originally Greek form was adopted by Jewish writers (Philo,
Hypoth
. 7.14; Josephus,
Ag. Ap
. 2.23–29).
1
:
Sound
(lit., “healthy”)
doctrine
, a particular concern of the Pastorals (1.9; 1 Tim 1.10; 2 Tim 4.3).
2
: See 1 Tim 3.2,8.
3
: Cf. 1 Tim 3.11.
4
: See 1 Tim 2.11–15.
5
–6
:
Self-controlled
, one of the four cardinal virtues, advocated by both Jewish and Gentile writers (Aristotle, Homer, Philo, Josephus).
7
:
Good works
, those consistent with the author’s values (see 3.1; 1 Tim 2.10).
9
: 1 Tim 6.1–2.
Slaves
, integral to Hellenistic households, perhaps constituted a majority in some urban areas. Jewish and Gentile writers rarely question the institution, although Philo mentions a few Jewish communities that rejected slavery, including the Essenes (
Good Person
79). Some slaves were baptized as part of the household, while others joined on their own accord.
2.11
–3.8a: Salvation and exhortations.
11
:
Grace
(“charis”), lit., “favor, beneficence.”
Grace of God
never appears in LXX, though believers frequently “find grace” before God (see Gen 6.8).
Salvation
, see 1.14n. and 3.5n.
12
: Exhortations reflecting Hellenistic moral philosophy, specifically Stoic concerns with self-control; see 2.5–6n.
13
:
Great God and Savior
, language related to Roman emperor cult describes Jesus as God (see Jn 1.14; 20.28; Heb 1.8).
14
: Perhaps quoting from an early Christian hymn.
Redeem
, from sin as slaves are manumitted (see Ex 6.6; Ps 130.8 [129.8 LXX]).
People of his own
, lit., “chosen people” (“laon periousion”), only here in the NT but five times in the LXX (Ex 19.5; 23.22; Deut 7.6; 14.2; 26.18; see also Ezek 37.23) to refer to Israel’s election. The (predominantly Gentile) church sees itself in continuity with Israel.
3.1
:
Rulers and authorities
, governmental leaders; a warning against civil disobedience (see Rom 13.1–7; 1 Tim 2.1–2; 1 Pet 2.13–14).
4
–7
: A single sentence in Greek, perhaps a baptismal formula.
5
:
Saved us
, God’s salvation, indicated by Christ’s actions and believers’ moral transformation, is a completed action; by contrast, in the authentic Pauline epistles, salvation is completed by future resurrection. For salvation as moral conversion see Philo,
Rewards
163.
Not because of any works
reflects Pauline language (Rom 3.28; Gal 2.16; see also Deut 9.5), where Paul refers specifically to “works of the law.”
Mercy
(“eleos”) is a central attribute of the divine in Jewish Scriptures (see Ex 34.6–7; Num 14.18; Ps 86.5,15 [LXX 85.5,15]) where it also describes a God of love and compassion (Heb “
ḥ
esed”).
Water of rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit
, baptism.
Rebirth and renewal
draw on a rich complex of meanings that connects God’s past act of creation to God’s present act of the transformation of the believer’s heart, to God’s future re-creation or bodily resurrection. See 1QH 11–12.
The Holy Spirit
, God at work in the world; the Greek lacks the definite article.
7
:
Justified
, brought into right relationship with God. Paul stresses justification outside of the law (see Rom 3.24; Gal 2.16; compare Jas 2.21–25).
3.8b
–
11: Community controversies.
8
:
Good works
, see 2.7n.; 3.5n.
9
: 1 Tim 1.4,6–7.
Genealogies
, either generational lists in the Jewish Scriptures or genealogies of Jesus (Gen 10; 1 Chr 1–9; Mt 1.1–17; Lk 3.23–38).
Quarrels about the law
, see 1.14n.
10
:
Admonition
, Mt 18.15–17 and the DSS (1QS), and CD enjoin similar methods for addressing disputes.
3.12
–15: Farewell. 12
:
Tychicus
, Paul’s companion (Acts 20.4; Eph 6.21; Col 4.7–9; 2 Tim 4.12).
Nicopolis
, city on Greece’s western coast.
13
:
Apollos
, see Acts 18.24–28; 1 Cor 3.4–6; 16.12.
14
:
Good works
, see 3.5n.
1
–3: Introduction.
1
:
Timothy
, a co-sender also of 2 Corinthians, Philippians, and 1 Thessalonians.
2
:
Apphia
is mentioned only here; she may have been Philemon’s wife or perhaps was prominent in the community, since she is singled out for notice.
Archippus
, see Col 4.17;
fellow soldier
, co-worker (see also Philem 2.25).
In your house
, presumably the community met in Philemon’s house; this was common in the early years of the movement.
3
:
Grace … and peace … Lord Jesus Christ
, standard Pauline salutation (see, e.g., Rom 1.7).
Our Father
, following Jesus’ example (e.g., Mt 6.9). The Tanakh does not usually refer to God this way, but see Isa 63.16; Ps 89.26 [Heb v. 27].
4
–7: Thanksgiving.
Paul uses the singular for “you” in vv. 4–22a; most commentators hold it to refer to Philemon although a few argue for Archippus.
4
:
Remember
, the remembrance of people appears in ancient Jewish prayers and letters (e.g., 1 Macc 12.11; 2 Macc 1.2–6), frequently in the form of a petitioner beseeching God to “remember” and to deliver him or his people (e.g., Jer 15.15; Ps. 106.4). Remembrance is an important theme in later rabbinic liturgies, including “Yizkor” (lit., “remembrance”) in memory of the dead.
5
:
Saints
, Gk “hagioi,” “holy ones,” Paul’s usual characterization of believers (e.g., Rom 1.7; 1 Cor 1.2; etc.). It suggests persons and objects set apart for service to God (e.g., Lev 11.44–45).