Read The Jewish Annotated New Testament Online
Authors: Amy-Jill Levine
2.8
–11:
Smyrna.
8
:
Smyrna
, another seaport on the Asia Minor coast, about whose Jewish community nothing is known.
First and the last
, see 1.17; 1.8n.
9
–11
:
Slander
, see “So-Called Jews and Their Synagogues of Satan” above.
Synagogue
(i.e., assembly), a common Gk term for religious or social assembly.
Of Satan
, in context, Gentile members of Pauline congregations (see Introduction); the traditional view, that this is a condemnation of practicing Jews who do not believe in Jesus, is not supported if Revelation is read as a Jewish text. It was, of course, possible for Jews to criticize other Jews as demonically inspired; see 1QH 2.22, calling apostate (from the Essene perspective) Jews “a congregation of Belial.”
10
:
Devil
, seen as the author of testing. Cf. Job, where the adversary (Heb “ha-satan”) provokes a test of Job (chs 1–2).
Ten days
, a limited period (Dan 1.12).
Crown of life
, Jas 1.12; 1 Pet 5.4. The
crown
was given to a victor in a contest (2 Tim 2.5); here it means those who triumph through death.
11
:
Second death
, final condemnation (see 20.14).
2.12
–17:
Pergamum.
12
:
Pergamum
, a major city in Asia Minor, notable for its elaborate acropolis with a temple to the Roman emperor.
Two-edged sword
, see 1.16n.
13
:
Satan’s throne
, often identified as the imperial altar on the acropolis.
Holding … my name
, commitment to central tenets of Christ according to this author.
Antipas my witness
, Revelation’s only named martyr.
14
:
Balaam
, seer who led Israel to intermarriage and idolatry (Num 22.15–24.25); used here as a pseudonym for a rival prophet who permits the eating of “eidōlothuta,” food ritually dedicated to idols, and unregulated sexuality (“porneuō”), both likely caricatures of the Pauline mission (cf. Acts 15.29; 1 Cor 7–8). Both would be seen as polluting to a halakhically concerned prophet like John. John identifies the true community as faithful to Jewish law.
15
:
Nicolaitans
, see 2.6n.
16
:
Sword
, see 1.16n.
17
:
Hidden manna
, heavenly food (Ex 16.31).
White stone
, amulet with a secret divine name, not unlike the magical gems purveyed around the Roman world at this time. Millennialist movements often develop new forms of magical protection.
2.18
–29:
Thyatira.
18
:
Thyatira
, a town of little significance in the first century, known best for many influential trade-guilds and its religious diversity; Acts 16.14 describes its Jewish population as welcoming godfearers.
Eyes like a flame
, Dan 10.6.
20
–21
:
Jezebel
, King Ahab’s queen, who patronized the Baal-cult (1 Kings 16.31; 19.1–2); like Balaam (2.14), a pseudonym for a prophet who allows nonkosher food and some loosening of sexual restrictions that John deems essential for sexual purity. John sees her gender and her sexual teachings (which may be Pauline; cf. 1 Cor 7.5–10) as inextricably polluting (see “Woman and the Symbolism of Pollution,” p.
489
). Her
fornication
is less likely a literal charge than John’s metaphor to describe her positive relations with Greco-Roman society.
22
:
Bed
(Gk “klinē”) suggests illness, not rape.
Adultery
, a metaphor for idolatry (cf. Jer 3.6–11).
24
:
Deep things of Satan
is likely an ironic reference to misguided teaching that presents itself as profound.
27
: See Ps 2.8–9, which is here broadened from the Davidic king to all who follow Christ.
28
:
Morning star
, Jesus, see 22.16; Num 24.17.
3.1
–6:
Sardis.
1
:
Sardis
, a wealthy inland city;
Ant
. 14.235, 259–61, describes the success of its Jewish community, later reflected in its enormous synagogue, built and expanded over the third through seventh centuries CE. Sardis Jews seem to have had good relations with non-Jews.
Seven spirits
, see 1.4n.
Seven stars
, see 1.16n.; 1.20.
3
:
Thief
, likely reference to an aphorism of Jesus about the surprise of the eschaton’s arrival, Mt 24.42–44.
4
:
Soiled
garments (cf. 22.11) that might be replaced with clean ones (cf. 3.18; 7.14; 19.14); John regards the congregation as impure in a moral, not necessarily cultic, sense.
5
:
White robes
, see 1.14n.
Book of life
, Ps. 69.28; Dan 12.1; the list of those who are redeemed. See also 13.8; 17.8; 20.12,15.
3.7
–13:
Philadelphia.
7
:
Philadelphia
, a hill-town in western Asia Minor, known for its trade-guilds; it suffered a terrible earthquake in 17 CE and more thereafter (Pliny,
Nat
. 2.86.200; Strabo,
Geogr
. 12.8.18; 13.4.10). There is no evidence predating the third century CE of Jews there, though their presence before that time cannot be ruled out.
Key of David … shut
, Isa 22.22. As in Mt 16.9; 18.18, the key is a symbol of authority.
8
:
Open door … shut
, an opportunity that no one can prevent them from acting on.
9
:
Synagogue of Satan
, see “So-Called Jews and Their Synagogues of Satan,” p.
469
.
11
:
Crown
, symbol of achievement, as in the crown of victory for the winner of a race (see 2.10n.)
12
:
Pillar in the temple
, symbol of permanence. Revelation refers often to the symbolic value of the heavenly temple furniture and infrastructure: 4.5; 11.4.
New Jerusalem
, see chs 21–22, cf. Ezek 40–48.
New name
, see 2.17n.
3.14
–22:
Laodicea.
14
:
Laodicea
, an important regional city that suffered earthquakes in 60 CE; it had a considerable Jewish community (
Ant
. 12.147–53).
Amen
, Heb assent to prayer; used as a title for Jesus, 2 Cor 1.20, meaning the definitive acceptance of God’s will.
Origin of God’s creation
, or “beginning” (see translators’ note
a
); cf. Jn 1.1–3.
18
:
Gold refined by fire
, a metaphor for purifying from sin; see Prov 27.21.
White robes
, see 1.14n.
4.1
–11: Vision of heavenly throne.
1
–2
: John is again in or still assumed into an ecstatic state (
in the spirit
). His ascent to the heavenly throne room is immediate and unmediated, unlike other apocalyptic ascent narratives such as Daniel,
1 Enoch
, and the
Testament of Levi
.
3
: The vague
one seated there
and the mineralogical similes recall Ezek 1.16,26–27; Dan 10.6.
4
:
Elders
are John’s obscure innovation, unparalleled in any other apocalyptic vision. It is unclear whether they represent a rank of angel, ascended patriarchs, members of the Jewish Jesus Movement, or some synthesis of any of these alternatives, but they subsequently serve as guides to and commenters on what is happening (11.16; 19.4).
White robes … crowns
, 1.14n.; 2.10n.
5
: Storm imagery recalls Ezek 1.4–14 and characterized visions of God in Jewish apocalyptic literature (
4 Ezra
13.1–11;
Apoc. Abr
. 17–18;
1 En
. 14); it draws on ancient Canaanite and Israelite traditions of storm theophanies (Ex 19; Isa 6.1–4; Ps 29; Dan 7.9).
Seven spirits
, 1.4n.
6
:
Sea of glass
, the heavenly sea became a standard motif in Jewish ascent narratives (
1 En
. 14.10), and may be related to the dome or “raqia“in Ezek 1.22 (cf. Gen 1.6).
Living creatures
(Heb “chai’im”; Gk “zōa”) replicate those of Ezek 1.5–11.
8
: By imagining the
creatures
with
six wings
, singing a version of the “Kedushah” (Isa 6.1–3), John incorporates Isaiah’s vision; multiple
eyes
evoke the wheels on the “merkavah” (heavenly chariot-throne) of Ezek 1.18.
9
–11
: Heavenly
glory
and perfection are revealed in liturgical drama and responsive praise-songs, reminiscent of the “Sabbath Songs” of Qumran (4QShirShabba). See Dan 7.9–10.
5.1
–14: Delivery of the scroll with seven seals to the Lamb. 1–4
: Like Ezekiel (2.9–11; see “John, a New Ezekiel,” p.
473
), John receives a heavenly scroll whose contents are so foreboding no heavenly being will assume its responsibility.
1
:
Seven seals
, completely sealed.