Read The Mammoth Book of King Arthur Online
Authors: Mike Ashley
It seems that William’s Arthur is Riothamus. But if that is so, why did William call him Arthur, a name he presumably took from the
Ystoria Britanica
? Like Vortigern (“supreme
ruler”) Riothamus is an epithet, meaning “great king”. Arthur, in the Brythonic, as
Ardd-ri
, also means “High King”. The author of
Ystoria Britanica
,
knowing the meanings of both
Rio-thamus
and
Ardd-ri
, may have assumed they related to the same ruler.
Somehow this explanation feels unsatisfactory. If Riothamus’ real name was Arthur, we might have to recognise that someone old enough to be king and to command troops – let us say 25
– in 469 could still have been victorious at Badon in around 493x497 – aged about 50 – and perhaps have fought at Camlann in 514x518 at the age of 70. The bigger question, though,
is: why would a king in Armorica, already defeated by the Goths, re-emerge in Britain over 20 years later? And, if he were a king of Armorica, why does his name not appear in the king lists? The
names of the rulers of Armorica (
see
Table 3.10
) during the fifth century are confusing because there were waves of settlers whose chieftains claimed princedoms in various parts of Armorica,
in particular Dumnonée in the north and Cornouaille in the south. However, there are some clues that may help clarify the problem over names.
The Cartulary of Quimperlé lists four early
comes
, or counts, of Cornubia (Cornouaille), amongst whom is Iahann Reeth or Regula (king). Iahann is an early version of John and two
generations later lived another John or Ionas Riotham. The second one died in 540, while the first, Iahann Reeth, had come to Armorica with a large fleet of ships in the 450s. He could easily have
been the king who fought against Euric and whose name became confused with Ionas Riotham, who lived so soon afterwards.
3. A Tentative Chronology
So we come back full circle to the lifetime of Vortigern. By all accounts he was banished and killed soon after the death of his son Vortimer which means he must have died
around the year 460. Into the vacuum, so Gildas tells us, stepped Ambrosius, who
rallied the British and fought against the Saxons, leading to the major British victory at
Badon. In studying these events, it seems increasingly likely that Badon had to come at the end of the fifth century, most likely around 493–497 and not the later date (518) listed in the
Welsh Annals.
According to the annals, it was Arthur who was the victor at Badon. By now Ambrosius must have been an old man, and a new general was leader.
This appears to be the background to Arthur, and it is only now in Nennius’s miscellany that Arthur appears. Nennius provides a battle list which is one of the most discussed and analysed
sections in all Arthurian lore. It appears as a separate section and I discuss it fully in the next chapter.
Nennius makes only two other brief references, both in his catalogue of the wonders of Britain and both of which really belong in the section of Welsh tradition. He tells of a stone at Cam
Cafal, in the province of Builth, that apparently bears the imprint of Arthur’s hound. The other is a tomb in the province of Ergyng, which is called Llygad Amr. According to legend, Amr (or
Amhar) was Arthur’s son, whom he killed and buried there. These two sites, along with the statement in the battle list that Arthur alone had cut down over nine hundred men, show that already
Arthur’s status had taken on the trappings of legend. The sites also help us locate associations with Arthur in both Builth and Ergyng, territories in south-east Wales already linked with
events we have discussed. A pattern is emerging of activities linking Arthur to south Wales and to earlier connections with Vortigern and Ambrosius, stretching across southern Britain, especially
around Gloucester and Hampshire. But we also have to recognise the conflicts in the north, especially in Lindsey, and that Ambrosius’s and Arthur’s theatre of operations was far broader
than southern Britain.
Table 6.2. Chronology from Roman withdrawal to Badon
From the last few chapters, we can piece together a chronology which gives us a framework to fifth century Britain, and see where Arthur fits.
410 | Britain secedes from Roman Empire. Incursions by Picts and Saxons on the increase. |
410–425 | Coel serves as |
425–430 | Treaty reached between Coel and Cunedda. Cunedda moves south to Wales. Vortigern rises to power. Conflict with Ambrosius the Elder continues. |
428 | Possible first major Saxon |
429 | Visit of Germanus of Auxerre. Possible date for the Alleluia victory over the Picts and Saxons. |
436 | Possible second visit of Germanus, though this may be confused with mission of Irish monk Garmon. |
437 | Conflict between Vortigern/Vitalis and Ambrosius culminates in Battle of Guoloph. Vortigern now takes on full power and becomes |
441 | Saxon infiltration into Britain now so complete that Gallic chronicler (Faustus?) believes Britain has fallen to the Saxons. Continued civil wars and plague lead to |
446–452 | Vortigern appeals to Aëtius to send reinforcements to Britain. None is forthcoming. |
449–455 | Vortigern negotiates with Saxons to provide mercenaries to help fight Picts. |
455–460 | Saxons under Hengist revolt against Vortigern and mount campaign to win territory in Britain. Vortigern is expelled. Vortimer leads British resistance but is killed in |
460s | Saxon forces return. Massacre of British nobles. Vortigern flees and is killed. Start of counter campaign, perhaps initially by Garmon and then Ambrosius the Younger, |
469/470 | Riothamus and army of “Brittones” fight the Visigoths. Defeated, Riothamus survives the battle but disappears from recorded history. |
470s–485 | Further waves of Saxon warriors. Ambrosius’s campaign has mixed results. Main opponents are Octa and Aelle. |
480s | Dyfnwal Hen, Lord of Strathclyde and Arthwys, Lord of the Pennines. |
485 | Aelle fights British at |
488 | Octa succeeds to the kingdom of |
491 | Massacre at Anderida by Aelle. Rise to power in Dyfed of Vortipor. |
493x497 | Victory of Arthur at Mount Badon. Death of Aelle and perhaps of Octa. Partition of Britain. |
495x516 | Arthur’s reign, |
514x518 | Battle of Camlann; Cerdic assumes power over West Saxons. |
536x540 | Gildas writes |
7
ARTHUR’S BATTLES – SEEKING THE SITES
1. Nennius’s Battle List
One of the most discussed items in all Arthuriana is Nennius’s list of twelve battles. It is a list which seems to offer so much, and yet reveals so little. Clearly
identifying the battle sites should enable us to pinpoint Arthur’s theatre of operations, and ultimately identify him. Unfortunately the sites almost defy interpretation. Despite valiant and
ingenious efforts by scholars over two centuries there is not a single site on which there is universal agreement. It is yet another mystery within a web of mysteries, making it all the more
fascinating.
As we shall see, suggested locations are scattered the length and breadth of Britain. One might imagine that if Arthur were fighting a common foe such as the Saxons, then the battles would be
along a frontier. Alternatively, if he were a ruler of a specific territory then those battles might be within or around its borders. However, if Arthur were fighting several enemies, either as
High King or
dux bellorum
, the scattering of sites would be more random. We also have to consider whether or not the list is of the battles of several kings, which might reveal a different
pattern.
Nennius’s battle list is his first and – bar the two items in his “wonders” – only reference to Arthur. Here is what he says:
56. At that time, the Saxons grew strong by virtue of their number and increased in power in Britain. Hengist having
died, his son Octha came from the
northern part of Britain to the kingdom of the Kentishmen and from him are descended the kings of Kent. Then Arthur, with the kings of Britain, fought against them in those days, but Arthur
himself was the
dux bellorum.
The first battle was at the mouth of the river which is called Glein. The second, third, fourth, and fifth battles were above another river which is
called Dubglas and is in the region of Linnuis. The sixth battle was above the river which is called Bassas. The seventh battle was in the forest of Celidon, that is Cat Coit Celidon. The
eighth battle was at the fortress of Guinnion, in which Arthur carried the image of holy Mary, the everlasting virgin, on his shoulders [shield]; and the pagans were put to flight on that
day. And through the power of our Lord Jesus Christ and through the power of the blessed Virgin Mary his mother there was great slaughter among them. The ninth battle was waged in the City of
the Legion. The tenth battle was waged on the shore of a river which is called Tribruit. The eleventh battle was fought on the mountain which is called Agned. The twelfth battle was on Mount
Badon in which there fell in one day 960 men from one charge by Arthur; and no one struck them down except Arthur himself, and in all the wars he emerged as victor. And while they [the
Saxons] were being defeated in all the battles, they were seeking assistance from Germany and their numbers were being augmented many times over without interruption. And they brought over
kings from Germany that they might reign over them in Britain, right down to the time in which Ida reigned, who was son of Eobba. He was the first king in Bernicia, that is, in Berneich.
As many commentators have noted, Arthur is called not a king but a
dux bellorum
, a “duke of battles”. We are in a Britain being carved up by petty kings, but they still look
toward an overall military command.
This happens, according to Nennius, after Hengist dies (in 488, according to the
ASC
). Octha [Octa] comes down from northern Britain, probably either from Lindsey or the territory
by the Wall, triggering the start of a campaign of twelve notable battles between the British and the Saxons, culminating, as Gildas also cites, in Badon. We have already dated Badon
to around 493–497, allowing Arthur’s campaign to last for five to ten years, a believable span of time for twelve battles which are unlikely to have been crammed into one season.
There were probably other battles. Nennius’s list almost certainly comes from a now lost battle-song commemorating the victories and ignoring the defeats. John Koch, in
The Celtic
Heroic Age
, believes that it is possible to reconstruct the rhyming scheme of the original poem. He adds that the reference to Badon fits into that rhyme, and therefore was part of the original
list and not added later due to Arthur’s prestige. Arthur was associated with Badon from whenever this poem was first told, possibly during his lifetime. However, if it was composed a century
or two later, the memory of Badon and the other battles may have become blurred.
We know that Gildas wrote of Ambrosius’s campaign, so we cannot discount the possibility that the battle list belonged primarily to Ambrosius. Or it may have been a catalogue of major
victories over the Saxons, regardless of commander, and thus could include Vortimer’s campaign. One factor in favour of this theory is the reference to four battles taking place on the river
Douglas, which could mean either a concentrated campaign in one area, or that several battles spread over time took place on more than one river Douglas.
The third sentence seems to suggest that all of Arthur’s battles were against the Saxons, and, more specifically, against Octha and the men of Kent. It may, however, be that this sentence
did not originally follow on from the previous two, but began a new section. “Them” may not refer solely to the Saxons, but to a more general enemy. The list does not suggest a civial
war.
The title
dux bellorum
has been discussed extensively. Although its literal translation is “duke of battles”, a tremendous amount has been read into it. Firstly, because
Arthur fought “with the kings of Britain”, many have suggested he was not a king himself, but a military commander. The title
dux
, of course, was one previously owned by the
dux Britanniarum
, the commander based in the north but having control over all of Britain’s
military. It was doubtless appropriated by Coel and possibly passed on
through his descendants, one of whom was Arthur of the Pennines.