The Modern Mercenary: Private Armies and What They Mean for World Order (31 page)

18
. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?”
National Interest
(Summer 1989): 4.

19
. George W. Bush, “The National Security Strategy of the United States of America” (Washington, DC: White House, 2002), 1.

20
. Article 2 (4) of the UN Charter stipulates: “All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state.” Article 2 (7) stipulates: “Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the UN to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII.”

21
. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, “An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping,”
International Relations
11, no. 3 (1992): 201.

22
. Patrik Johansson and Ramses Amer, “The United Nations Security Council and the Enduring Challenge of the Use of Force in Inter-State Relations,” Umeå Working Papers in Peace and Conflict Studies No. 3, Department of Political Science, Umeå University (2007), 6.

23
. On “states are dead,” see Kenichi Ohmae,
The End of the Nation State: The Rise of Regional Economies
(New York: Free Press, 1995). On “states are not dead,” see Stephen D. Krasner, “Abiding Sovereignty,”
International Political Science Review
22, no. 3 (2001): 229–251.

24
. Phillip Bobbitt,
Terror and Consent: The Wars for the Twenty-First Century
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008); Robert H. Jackson,
Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993).

25
. Jörg Friedrichs, “The Meaning of New Medievalism,”
European Journal of International Relations
7, no. 4 (2001): 481; S. J. Kobrin, “Back to the Future: Neomedievalism and the Postmodern Digital World Economy,”
Journal of International Affairs
51, no. 2 (1998): 364. For more on the state’s historicity, see J. Agnew, “The Territorial Trap: The Geographical Assumptions of International Relations Theory,”
Review of International Political Economy
1, no. 1 (1994): 65; Janice E. Thomson,
Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 2; and Rosenberg,
The Empire of Civil Society
, 36.

26
. Stephen D. Krasner, “Westphalia and All That,” in
Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change
, edited by Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 235; Stephen D. Krasner,
Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 82; Keene,
Beyond the Anarchical Society
; Andreas Osiander, “Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth,”
International Organization
55, no. 2 (2001): 284. See also Benno Teschke,
The Myth of 1648: Class, Geopolitics, and the Making of Modern International Relations
(New York: Verso, 2003).

27
. P. Michael Phillips, “Deconstructing Our Dark Age Future,”
Parameters
(Summer 2009): 96.

1
. For example, see Rodney Bruce Hall and Frederich V. Kratochwil, “Medieval Tales: Neorealist ‘Science’ and the Abuse of History,”
International Organization
47, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 479–491; John Gerald Ruggie, “Territoriality and Beyond: Problematizing Modernity in International Relations,”
International Organization
47, no. 1 (Winter 1993): 139–174; Jörg Friedrichs, “The Meaning of New Medievalism,”
European Journal of International Relations
7, no. 4 (2001): 475–501; Stephen J. Kobrin, “Back to the Future: Neomedievalism and the Postmodern Digital World Economy,”
Journal of International Affairs
51, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 361–386; Gregory O’Hayon, “Big Men, Godfathers, and Zealots: Challenges to the State in the New Middle Ages” (PhD dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 2003), 50; Andrew Gamble, “Regional Blocs, World Order and the New Medievalism,” in
European Union and New Regionalism: Regional Actors and Global Governance in a Post-Hegemonic Era
, edited by Mario Telo (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007), 31; Phillip G. Cerny, “Neomedievalism, Civil War and the New Security Dilemma: Globalisation as Durable Disorder,”
Civil Wars
1, no. 1 (1998): 40; Bruce Holsinger,
Neomedievalism, Neoconservatism, and the War on Terror
(Chicago: Prickly Paradigm, 2007), 64; Cristian Cantir and Philip Schrodt, “Neomedievalism in the Twenty-First Century: Warlords, Gangs, and Transnational Militarized Actors as a Challenge to Sovereign Preeminence,” paper presented at Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, New Orleans, 2010, 15.

2
. Hedley Bull,
The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 254.

3
. Ibid., 246.

4
. William Shakespeare,
The Merchant of Venice
, edited by Blakemore Evans (Boston: Houghton Norton, 1974), 3.3.30–31.

5
. GDP in current US dollars and not adjusted for inflation. See International Bank for Reconstruction and Development,
2010 World Development Indicators
(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2010).

6
. Marshall McLuhan,
The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man
(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962).

7
. Martin Wight,
Systems of States
(Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1977), 131.

8
. Statute, Rome. “Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court,”
International Legal Materials
37 (1998): 999–1019.

9
. Rosalyn Higgins, “Intervention and International Law,” in
Intervention in World Politics
, edited by Hedley Bull (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984), 36. For more of this viewpoint, see Christopher Greenwood, “International Law and the NATO Intervention in Kosovo,”
International and Comparative Law Quarterly
49, no. 4 (2008): 926–934. For an overview of the scholarly debate on sovereignty, see Jennifer M. Welsh, “Authorizing Humanitarian Intervention,” in
The United Nations and Global Security
, edited by Richard M. Price and Mark W. Zacher (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 177–192.

10
. Rome Statute art. 13. For more information on ICC jurisdiction over citizens of nonparties, see Jennifer Elsea,
International Criminal Court: Overview and Selected Legal Issues
(Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2002), 25.

11
. At the 2005 UN World Summit, member states included R2P in the outcome document, agreeing to paragraphs 138 and 139, which articulate the scope of R2P and to whom the responsibility actually falls (i.e., nations first, regional and international communities second). In April 2006, the UN Security Council reaffirmed the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 in a resolution (S/RES/1674) on the protection of civilians in armed conflict, thereby formalizing its support for the norm. In January 2009, the UN secretary-general, Ban Ki-Moon, released a report called “Implementing the Responsibility to Protect,” which further argues for the implementation of R2P. See UN General Assembly, Resolution 60/1, “2005 World Summit Outcome,” October 24, 2005,
http://www.un.org/summit2005/documents.html
; UN General Assembly, A/63/677, “Implementing the Responsibility to Protect: Report of the Secretary-General,” January 12, 2009,
http://www.unrol.org/files/SG_reportA_63_677_en.pdf
.

12
. Patricia McNerney, “International Criminal Court: Issues for Consideration by the United States Senate,”
Law and Contemporary Problems
64, no. 1 (2001): 184.

13
. Bull,
The Anarchical Society
, 270.

14
. Oliver P. Richmond, “The Dilemmas of Subcontracting the Liberal Peace,” in
Subcontracting Peace: The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding
, edited by Oliver P. Richmond and Henry F. Carey (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005), 20.

15
. Peter W. Singer, “Humanitarian Principles, Private Military Agents: Some Implications of the Privatised Military Industry for the Humanitarian Community,” in
Resetting the Rules of Engagement: Trends and Issues in Military-Humanitarian Relations
, edited by V. Wheeler and A. Harmer (London: Overseas Development Institute, 2006), 70.

16
. Quoted in Yves Engler, “The Mercenaries and the NGOs,”
Counterpunch
, August 26, 2010.
http://www.counterpunch.org/2010/08/26/the-mercenaries-and-the-ngos/print
, accessed February 25, 2014.

17
. On trade flows, see Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems,
Progress in Reducing Foreign Exchange Settlement Risk
(Basel, Switzerland: Bank for International Settlements, 2008), foreword.

18
. UNCTAD,
Transnational Corporations and World Development
(London: International Thompson Business Press, 1996), ix, 4; UN Conference on Trade,
World Investment Report 1999: Foreign Direct Investment & the Challenge of Development
(Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Bernan, 1999); Peter Willetts, “Transnational Actors and International Organizations in Global Politics,” in
The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations
, edited by John Baylis and Steve Smith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 356–383; Anthony McGrew, “Globalization and Global Politics,” in
The Globalization of World Politics
, 21, 23.

19
.
International Taxation: Large US Corporations and Federal Contractors with Subsidiaries in Jurisdictions Listed as Tax Havens or Financial Privacy Jurisdictions
(Washington, DC: Government Accountability Office, 2008); Ryan J. Donmoyer, “83 Percent of Companies Had Tax-Haven Units,”
Bloomberg News
, January 16, 2010,
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aK0aqjwsiSCA
, accessed February 25, 2014.

20
. J. Lamont, “UN Seeks Help from Companies in War on HIV/AIDS,”
Financial Times
, August 30, 2002, 1.

21
. Stephanie Hanson, “In West Africa, Threat of Narco-States,”
Council on Foreign Relations Analysis Brief
, July 10, 2007, i.

22
. “Romagna tua non è, e non fu mai, sanza guerra ne’ cuor de’ suoi tiranni.” Dante Alighieri,
The Divine Comedy, Inferno
, rev. ed., translated by Mark Musa (New York: Penguin, 2002), canto XXVII, st. 37–38.

23
. For example, see Afrobarometer; Business Environment and Enterprise Performance Survey; Business Environment Risk Intelligence (BERI); the World Bank’s Country Policy & Institutional Assessment; State Failure Task Force State Capacity Survey; Global Insight’s DRI/McGraw-Hill; European Bank for Reconstruction and Development; the Economist Intelligence Unit; Freedom House; Gallup International; World Economic Forum; Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal; Human Rights Database; Latinobarometro; Political Risk Services; Reporters without Borders; Institute for Management Development’s World Competitiveness Yearbook; World Markets Online; PriceWaterhouseCoopers’s Opacity Index; the World Business Environment Survey; the Fund for Peace Failed State Index; Brookings Institution’s Index of State Weakness in the Developing World; the Peace and Conflict Instability Ledger; the Political Instability Task Force (PITF); German Ministry of Development’s Listing of Failing States (BMZ).

24
. John Rapley, “The New Middle Ages,”
Foreign Affairs
(May–June 2006): 95.

25
. Internet Medieval Sourcebook, “Henry IV: Letter to Gregory VII, Jan 24 1076,”
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/henry4-to-g7a.asp
, accessed February 25, 2014.

26
. Rachel Donadio and Elizabeth A. Harris, “Vatican Excommunicates Chinese Priest Ordained ‘Illicitly,’”
New York Times
, July 17, 2011, A9.

27
. For example, see the Magna Carta (England, 1215); the Declaration of Arbroath (Scotland, 1320); the Bill of Rights (England, 1689); the Claim of Right (Scotland, 1689); the Declaration of Independence (United States, 1776); the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France, 1789); the Bill of Rights (United States, 1789–1791); the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations, 1948); the European Convention on Human Rights (Council of Europe, 1950); the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966); the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966); the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Canada, 1982); and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (European Union, 2000).

28
. Cited in David Littman, “Universal Human Rights and Human Rights in Islam,”
Midstream
42, no. 2 (1999): 2–7.

29
. Nobelprize.org, “The Nobel Peace Prize 2010 Liu Xiaobo,” July 24, 2011,
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2010/press.html
, accessed February 25, 2014.

30
. “China Questions ‘True Intentions’ of Award of Nobel Peace Prize to Liu Xiaobo,”
Xinhua News
, October 12, 2010,
http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-10/12/c_13553857.htm
, accessed February 25, 2014.

31
. Thorbjorn Jagland, “Why We Gave Liu Xiaobo a Nobel,”
New York Times
, October 23, 2010, A21.

1
. Carl von Clausewitz,
On War
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 87.

2
. Adam Roberts, “Lives and Statistics: Are 90% of War Victims Civilians?”
Survival
52, no. 3 (2010): 115–136; see also Martin van Creveld,
The Transformation of War
(New York: Free Press, 1991); Cristian Cantir and Philip Schrodt, “Neomedievalism in the Twenty-First Century: Warlords, Gangs, and Transnational Militarized Actors as a Challenge to Sovereign Preeminence,” paper presented at Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association (New Orleans, 2010), 4.