The Revenge of Geography (52 page)

  1.
Robert Strausz-Hupé,
Geopolitics: The Struggle for Space and Power
(New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1942), pp. 48–53; Parker, Mac
kinder: Geography as an Aid to Statecraft
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), pp. 178–80.

  2.
Strausz-Hupé,
Geopolitics
, pp. 59–60.

  3.
Ibid., pp. 60–61, 68–69.

  4.
Ibid., pp. 142, 154–55.

  5.
Ibid., pp. 85, 101, 140, 197, 220.

  6.
Holger H. Herwig, “
Geopolitik:
Haushofer, Hitler and Lebensraum,” in
Geopolitics: Geography and Strategy
, edited by Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (London: Frank Cass, 1999), p. 233.

  7.
Brian W. Blouet,
Halford Mackinder: A Biography
(College Station: Texas A & M Press, 1987), pp. 190–91.

  8.
Strausz-Hupé,
Geopolitics
, p. 264.

  9.
Ibid., p. 191.

10.
Ibid., pp. 196, 218.

11.
Paul Bracken,
Fire in the East: The Rise of Asian Military Power and the Second Nuclear Age
(New York: HarperCollins, 1999), p. 30.

  1.
Brian W. Blouet,
Halford Mackinder: A Biography
(College Station: Texas A & M Press, 1987), p. 192.

  2.
Nicholas J. Spykman, “Geography and Foreign Policy I,”
The American Political Science Review
, Los Angeles, February 1938; Francis P. Sempa, “The Geopolitical Realism of Nicholas Spykman,” introduction to Nicholas J. Spykman,
America’s Strategy in World Politics
(New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2007).

  3.
Nicholas J. Spykman,
America’s Strategy in World Politics: The United States and the Balance of Power
(New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1942), pp. xvii, xviii, 7, 18, 20–21, 2008 Transaction edition.

  4.
Ibid., pp. 42, 91; Robert Strausz-Hupé,
Geopolitics: The Struggle for Space and Power
(New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1942), p. 169; Halford J. Mackinder,
Democratic Ideals and Reality: A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction
(Washington, DC: National Defense University, 1919, 1942), p. 202; Daniel J. Boorstin,
Hidden History: Exploring Our Secret Past
(New York: Vintage, 1987, 1989), p. 246; James Fairgrieve,
Geography and World Power
, pp. 18–19, 326–27.

  5.
Spykman,
America’s Strategy in World Politics
, p. 89.

  6.
Ibid., pp. 49–50, 60.

  7.
Ibid., p. 50.

  8.
Ibid., pp. 197, 407.

  9.
Ibid., p. 182.

10.
Nicholas John Spykman,
The Geography of the Peace
, edited by Helen R. Nicholl (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1944), p. 43.

11. Mackinder,
Democratic Ideals and Reality
, p. 51.

12.
W. H. Parker,
Mackinder: Geography as an Aid to Statecraft
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), p. 195.

13.
Henry A. Kissinger,
Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy
(New York: Doubleday, 1957), pp. 125, 127.

14.
Spykman,
America’s Strategy in World Politics
, pp. 135–37, 460, 469.

15.
Ibid., p. 466.

16.
Michael P. Gerace, “Between Mackinder and Spykman: Geopolitics, Containment, and After,”
Comparative Strategy
, University of Reading, UK, 1991.

17.
Spykman,
America’s Strategy in World Politics
, p. 165.

18.
Ibid., p. 166.

19.
Ibid., p. 178; Albert Wohlstetter, “Illusions of Distance,”
Foreign Affairs
, New York, January 1968.

20.
Parker,
Mackinder
, p. 186.

21.
Geoffrey Kemp and Robert E. Harkavy,
Strategic Geography and the Changing Middle East
(Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), p. 5.

  1.
A. T. Mahan,
The Problem of Asia: And Its Effect Upon International Policies
(London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1900), pp. 27–28, 42–44, 97, 161; Cohen,
Geography and Politics in a World Divided
(New York: Random House, 1963), pp. 48–49.

  2.
Robert Strausz-Hupé,
Geopolitics: The Struggle for Space and Power
(New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1942), pp. 253–54.

  3.
A. T. Mahan,
The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1890), pp. 225–26, 1987 Dover edition.

  4.
Strausz-Hupé,
Geopolitics
, pp. 244–45.

  5.
Jon Sumida, “Alfred Thayer Mahan, Geopolitician,” in
Geopolitics, Geography and Strategy
, edited by Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (London: Frank Cass, 1999), pp. 53, 55, 59; Jon Sumida,
Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command: The Classic Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp. 41, 84.

  6.
Mahan,
The Influence of Sea Power Upon History
, p. 25.

  7.
Ibid., pp. iii, 8, 26–27, 50–52, 67.

  8.
Ibid., pp. iv–vi, 15, 20–21, 329.

  9.
Ibid., pp. 29, 138.

10.
Ibid., pp. 29, 31, 33–34, 138; Eric Grove,
The Future of Sea Power
(Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990), pp. 224–25.

11.
Norman Angell,
The Great Illusion
(New York: Cosimo Classics, 1909, 2007), pp. 310–11.

12.
James R. Holmes and Toshi Yoshihara,
Chinese Naval Strategy in the 21st Century: The Turn to Mahan
(New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 39.

13.
Julian S. Corbett,
Principles of Maritime Strategy
(London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1911), pp. 87, 152–53, 213–14, 2004 Dover edition.

14.
U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Coast Guard, “A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower,” Washington, DC, and Newport, Rhode Island, October 2007.

15.
John J. Mearsheimer,
The Tragedy of Great Power Politics
(New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), pp. 210, 213, 365.

  1.
Paul Bracken,
Fire in the East: The Rise of Asian Military Power and the Second Nuclear Age
(New York: HarperCollins, 1999), pp. 33–34.

  2.
Ibid., pp. xxv–xxvii, 73.

  3.
Ibid., pp. 2, 10, 22, 24–25.

  4.
Ibid., pp. 26–31.

  5.
Ibid., pp. 37–38.

  6.
Ibid., pp. 42, 45, 47–49, 63, 97, 113.

  7.
Ibid., p. 156.

  8.
Ibid., p. 110.

  9.
Ibn Khaldun,
The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History
(1377), translated by Franz Rosenthal, pp. 93, 109, 133, 136, 140, 1967 Princeton University Press edition.

10.
R. W. Southern,
The Making of the Middle Ages
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953), pp. 12–13.

11.
George Orwell,
1984
(New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1949), p. 124.

12.
Thomas Pynchon, foreword to George Orwell,
1984
(New York: Penguin, 2003).

13. Oswald Spengler,
The Decline of the West
, translated by Charles Francis Atkinson (New York: Vintage, 1922, 2006), p. 395.

14.
Bracken,
Fire in the East
, pp. 123–24.

15.
Ibid., pp. 89, 91.

16.
Jakub Grygiel, “The Power of Statelessness: The Withering Appeal of Governing,”
Policy Review
, Washington, April–May 2009.

17.
Randall L. Schweller, “Ennui Becomes Us,”
The National Interest
, Washington, DC, December 16, 2009.

  1.
Saul B. Cohen,
Geography and Politics in a World Divided
(New York: Random House, 1963), p. 157.

  2.
William Anthony Hay, “Geopolitics of Europe,”
Orbis
, Philadelphia, Spring 2003.

  3.
Claudio Magris,
Danube
(New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1988, 1989), p. 18.

  4.
Barry Cunliffe,
Europe Between the Oceans: Themes and Variations: 9000 BC–AD 1000
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), pp. vii, 31, 38, 40, 60, 318, 477.

  5.
Tony Judt, “Europe: The Grand Illusion,”
New York Review of Books
, July 11, 1996.

  6.
Cunliffe,
Europe Between the Oceans
, p. 372.

  7.
Hay, “Geopolitics of Europe.”

  8.
Peter Brown,
The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150–750
(London: Thames & Hudson, 1971), pp. 11, 13, 20.

  9.
Henri Pirenne,
Mohammed and Charlemagne
(ACLS Humanities e-book 1939, 2008).

10.
Fernand Braudel,
The Mediterranean: And the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II
, translated by Sian Reynolds (New York: Harper & Row, 1949), p. 75.

11.
Cunliffe,
Europe Between the Oceans
, pp. 42–43.

12.
Robert D. Kaplan,
Eastward to Tartary: Travels in the Balkans, the Middle East, and the Caucasus
(New York: Random House, 2000), p. 5.

13. Philomila Tsoukala, “A Family Portrait of a Greek Tragedy,”
New York Times
, April 24, 2010.

14.
Judt, “Europe: The Grand Illusion.”

15.
Jack A. Goldstone, “The New Population Bomb: The Four Mega-trends That Will Change the World,”
Foreign Affairs
, New York, January–February 2010.

16.
Hay, “Geopolitics of Europe.”

17.
Judt, “Europe: The Grand Illusion.”

18.
Zbigniew Brzezinski,
The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives
(New York: Basic Books, 1997), pp. 69–71.

19.
Colin S. Gray,
Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005), p. 37.

20.
Josef Joffe in conversation, Madrid, May 5, 2011, Conference of the Fundación para el Análisis y los Estudios Sociales.

21.
Geoffrey Sloan, “Sir Halford Mackinder: The Heartland Theory Then and Now,” in
Geopolitics: Geography and Strategy
, edited by Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (London: Frank Cass, 1999), p. 20.

22.
Steve LeVine, “Pipeline Politics Redux,”
Foreign Policy
, Washington, DC, June 10, 2010; “BP Global Statistical Review of World Energy,” June 2010.

23.
Hay, “Geopolitics of Europe.”

24.
Halford J. Mackinder,
Democratic Ideals and Reality: A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction
(Washington, DC: National Defense University, 1919, 1942), p. 116.

  1.
Alexander Solzhenitsyn,
August 1914
, translated by Michael Glenny (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1971, 1972), p. 3.

  2.
Saul B. Cohen,
Geography and Politics in a World Divided
(New York: Random House, 1963), p. 211.

  3.
G. Patrick March,
Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996), p. 1.

  4.
Philip Longworth,
Russia: The Once and Future Empire from Pre-History to Putin
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2005), pp. 16–17.

  5.
March,
Eastern Destiny
, pp. 4–5; W. Bruce Lincoln,
The Conquest of
a Continent: Siberia and the Russians
(New York: Random House, 1994), p. xx, 2007 Cornell University Press edition.

  6.
A Tatar is a Turkic-speaking Sunni Muslim of which there were many in the Mongol armies, leading to the name being used interchangeably with Mongol.

  7.
March,
Eastern Destiny
, p. 18.

  8.
James H. Billington,
The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture
(New York: Knopf, 1966), p. 11.

  9.
Ibid., pp. 18–19, 26.

10.
Longworth,
Russia
, p. 1.

11.
Lincoln,
The Conquest of a Continent
, p. 19.

12.
Longworth,
Russia
, pp. 48, 52–53.

13.
Robert Strausz-Hupé,
The Zone of Indifference
(New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1952), p. 88.

14.
Longworth,
Russia
, pp. 94–95; March,
Eastern Destiny
, p. 28.

15.
Robert D. Kaplan, introduction to
Taras Bulba
, translated by Peter Constantine (New York: Modern Library, 2003).

16.
Alexander Herzen,
My Past and Thoughts
, translated by Constance Garnett (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968, 1982), p. 97.

17.
Longworth,
Russia
, p. 200.

18.
Denis J. B. Shaw,
Russia in the Modern World: A New Geography
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), pp. 230–32.

19.
Ibid., pp. 5, 7; D. W. Meinig, “The Macrogeography of Western Imperialism,” in
Settlement and Encounter
, edited by F. H. Gale and G. H. Lawson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 213–40.

20.
Lincoln,
The Conquest of a Continent
, p. xix.

21.
Longworth,
Russia
, p. 322.

22.
Colin Thubron,
In Siberia
(New York: HarperCollins, 1999), pp. 99, 122.

23.
Lincoln,
The Conquest of a Continent
, p. 57.

24.
Ibid., pp. 89, 395.

25.
There is, too, the question of a warming Arctic, which would unblock the ice-bound White, Barents, Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian seas, to which all of Siberia’s mighty rivers flow, unleashing the region’s economic potential.

26.
March,
Eastern Destiny
, pp. 51, 130.

27.
Simon Saradzhyan, “Russia’s Red Herring,” ISN Security Watch, Zurich, May 25, 2010.

28. March,
Eastern Destiny
, p. 194.

29.
Shaw,
Russia in the Modern World
, p. 31.

30.
Soviet maps of Europe henceforth included all of European Russia, a cartographic device which ensured that Moscow was not viewed as an outsider. It also made Eastern European states appear more central, with Soviet republics like Ukraine and Moldova becoming, in effect, the new Eastern Europe. Jeremy Black,
Maps and History: Constructing Images of the Past
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), p. 151.

31.
Shaw,
Russia in the Modern World
, pp. 22–23.

32.
March,
Eastern Destiny
, pp. 237–38.

33.
Saradzhyan, “Russia’s Red Herring.”

34.
Zbigniew Brzezinski,
The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperative
(New York: Basic Books, 1997), p. 98.

35.
John Erickson, “ ‘Russia Will Not Be Trifled With’: Geopolitical Facts and Fantasies,” in
Geopolitics, Geography and Strategy
, edited by Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (London: Frank Cass, 1999), pp. 242–43, 262.

36.
Brzezinski,
The Grand Chessboard
, p. 110.

37.
Dmitri Trenin, “Russia Reborn: Reimagining Moscow’s Foreign Policy,”
Foreign Affairs
, New York, November–December 2009.

38.
Shaw,
Russia in the Modern World
, p. 248.

39.
Trenin, “Russia Reborn.”

40.
Paul Bracken,
Fire in the East: The Rise of Asian Military Power and the Second Nuclear Age
(New York: HarperCollins, 1999), p. 17.

41.
W. H. Parker,
Mackinder: Geography as an Aid to Statecraft
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), p. 157.

42.
Philip Stephens, “Putin’s Russia: Frozen in Decline,”
Financial Times
, London, October 14, 2011.

43.
Paul Dibb, “The Bear Is Back,”
The American Interest
, Washington, DC, November–December 2006.

44.
Brzezinski,
The Grand Chessboard
, p. 46.

45.
Richard B. Andres and Michael Kofman, “European Energy Security: Reducing Volatility of Ukraine-Russia Natural Gas Pricing Disputes,” National Defense University, Washington, DC, February 2011.

46.
Dibb, “The Bear Is Back.”

47. Martha Brill Olcott,
The Kazakhs
(Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1987, 1995), pp. 57–58.

48.
Olivier Roy,
The New Central Asia: The Creation of Nations
(New York: New York University Press, 1997, 2000), pp. xiv–xvi, 8–9, 66–69, 178.

49.
Andres and Kofman, “European Energy Security.”

50.
Olcott,
The Kazakhs
, p. 271.

51.
Dilip Hiro,
Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Iran
(New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2009), pp. 205, 281, 293.

52.
Martin C. Spechler and Dina R. Spechler, “Is Russia Succeeding in Central Asia?,”
Orbis
, Philadelphia, Fall 2010.

53.
James Brooke, “China Displaces Russia in Central Asia,”
Voice of America
, November 16, 2010.

54.
Olcott,
The Kazakhs
, p. 273.

55.
Hiro,
Inside Central Asia
, p. 262.

56.
Parker,
Mackinder
, p. 83.