The Spartacus War (28 page)

On the demography of Late Republican Italy, see P.A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC - AD 14 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971); T. Parkin, Roman Demography and Society (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); W.W. Scheidel, ‘Human Mobility in Roman Italy, I: The Free Population’, Journal of Roman Studies 94 (2005): 1-26, and ‘Human Mobility in Roman Italy, II: The Slave Population’, Journal of Roman Studies 95 (2005): 65-79.

On individual Roman politicians of the Spartacan War, see A. Keaveney, Sulla, the Last Republican (London: Routledge, 2005); A. Keaveney, ‘Sulla and Italy’, Critica Storia 19 (1982): 499-544; Allen Mason Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977); F.E. Adcock, Marcus Crassus, Millionaire (Cambridge, England: W. Heffer & Sons, 1966); B.A. Marshall, Crassus, a Political Biography (Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert, 1976); B.A. Marshall, ‘Crassus’s Ovation in 71’, Historia 21 (1972): 669-73; B.A. Marshall, ‘Crassus and the Command Against Spartacus’, Athenaeum 51 (1973): 109-21; P. Greenhalgh, Pompey, the Roman Alexander (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980); R. Seager, Pompey the Great, a Political Biography (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2002); Anthony Everitt, Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome’s Greatest Politician (New York: Random House, 2003); B.A. Marshall, R.J. Baker, ‘The Aspirations of Q. Arrius’, Historia 24.2 (1975): 220-31; I. Shatz man, ‘Four Notes on Roman Magistrates’, Athenaeum 46 (1968): 345-54.

On Sertorius, see Philip O. Spann,
Quintus Sertorius: Citizen,
Soldier, Exile (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1976); C.F. Conrad, Plutarch’s Sertorius: A Historical Commentary (University of North Carolina Press, 1994). On Mithridates, see Adrienne Mayor, Mithridates (Princeton: Princeton University Press, forthcoming).

Other valuable studies include M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007); J. Percival, The Roman Villa: An Historical Introduction (London: B.T. Batsford, 1976); J.S. Ackerman, The Villa: Form and Ideology of Country Houses (London: Thames and Hudson, 1990). C.V. Sutherland, The Romans in Spain, 217 BC - AD 117 (London: Methuen & Co., 1939); J.S. Richardson, The Romans in Spain Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, (1998); J.S. Richardson, Hispaniae: Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218-82 BC (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Wilfried Nippel, Public Order in Ancient Rome (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

Two accessible and readable recent introductions to the subject are Alison Futrell, The Roman Games (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), and Fik Meijer, The Gladiators, History’s Most Dangerous Sport (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2003). S. Shadrake, The World of the Gladiator (Stroud: Tempus Publishing, 2005), offers reconstructions of gladiatorial combat, as does M. Junkelmann, Das Spiel mit dem Tod. So kampften Roms Gladiatoren (Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2000); the latter is in German but the excellent photos speak for themselves. An English-language summary of some of Junkelmann’s ideas is found in M. Junkelmann, ‘Familia Gladiatoria: The Heroes of the Amphitheatre’, in Gladiators and Caesars: The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome, Eckart Koehne and Cornelia Ewigleben, eds., English version edited by R. Jackson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 31-74; see also M. Junkelmann, ‘Gladiatorial and Military Equipment and Fighting Technique: A Comparison’, Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 11 (2000): 113-17.

Karl Grossschmidt and Fabian Kanz,
Gladiatoren in Ephesos: Tod am Nachmittag
(Vienna: Osterreichisches Archaologisches Institut, 2002), summarizes important discoveries from a gladiators’ cemetery in Ephesus. Luciana Jacobelli, Gladiators at Pompeii (Los Angeles; John Paul Getty Museum, 2004), focuses on the important evidence of the first century AD but contains much of interest.

Other valuable books on gladiators and their place in Roman society and culture include D.G. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome (London and New York: Routledge, 1998); T. Wiedemann, Emperors and Gladiators (London and New York: Routledge, 1992). K.E. Welch theorizes a Roman initiative behind Campania’s first stone amphitheatres: K.E. Welch, The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), along with an article by the same author, ‘The Roman Arena in late-Republican Italy: A New Interpretation’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 7 (1994): 59- 80. Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), is speculative but often insightful. On gladiators in the armed gangs and bodyguards of the Late Republic, see Andrew Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 83-5.

The best introduction to Roman slavery is K.R. Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). See also his very thoughtful earlier study, Slaves and Masters in the Roman Empire: A Study in Social Control (Brussels: Lato mus, 1984). The little book by Michael Massey and Paul More-land, Slavery in Ancient Rome (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2001), is also a good start. T. Wiedemann, Greek and Roman Slavery (London: Routledge, 1981), is an excellent collection of documents. J.C. Dumont,
Servus. Rome et l’Esclavage sous la République.
Collection de l’École Française de Rome 103 (Rome: Ecole Française de Rome, Palais Farnèse, 1987), is fundamental on slavery in the Republic. Two important introductory studies are John Bodel, ‘Slave Labour and Roman Society’, in K. Bradley and P. Cartledge, eds.,
The Cambridge World History of
Slavery. Vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), and Willem Jongman, ‘Slavery and the Growth of Rome. The Transformation of Italy in the Second and First Centuries BCE’, in Catherine Edwards and Greg Woolf, eds., Rome the Cosmopolis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003): 100-122.

M.I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1998), is an essential discussion of the problem of slavery in the classical world. See also Joseph Vogt, Ancient Slavery and the Ideal of Man, trans. Thomas Wiedemann (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975); Keith Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Niall McKeown, The Invention of Ancient Slavery, Duckworth Classical Essays (London: Duckworth, 2007).

F.H. Thompson, The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Slavery (London: Duckworth, 2003) is valuable, but there remains much work to do on this subject. See Jane Webster, ‘Archaeologies of Slavery and Servitude: Bringing “New World” Perspectives to Roman Britain’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 18(1)(2005): 161-79.

On the Roman slave trade, see John Bodel, ‘Caveat Emptor: Towards a Study of Roman Slave-Traders’, Journal of Roman Archaeology. 18(2005): 181-95, and the debate represented by such works as W.V. Harris, ‘Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves’, The Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999): 62-75, and by W. Scheidel, ‘Quantifying the Sources of Slaves in the Early Roman Empire’, The Journal of Roman Studies 87 (1997): 156-69.

There is an excellent introduction to the subject in K.R. Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World, 140 BC - 70 BC. (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1989). See also Theresa Urbainczyk, Slave Revolts in Antiquity (Stocksfield, England: Acumen, 2008). Although the emphasis is on Greece, not Rome, a seminal discussion is found in Paul Cartledge, ‘Rebels and Sambos in Classical Greece: A Comparative View’, in his Spartan Reflections (London: Duckworth, 2001), 127-52. Brent Shaw’s Spartacus and the Slave Wars (Boston, Mass.: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2001) offers translation of the major sources and a valuable introductory essay. Also useful is Zvi Yavetz, Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Rome (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988). W. Hoben, Terminologische Studien zu den Sklavenerhebun gen der roemischen Republik (Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner, 1978), represents an important study of the terminology of revolt used in the ancient sources. On the First Sicilian Slave War, see P. Green, ‘The First Sicilian Slave War’, Past and Present 20 (1961): 10-29, with objections by W.G.G. Forrest and T.C.W. Stinton, ‘The First Sicilian Slave War’, Past and Present 22 (1962): 87-93. On the Sicilian Revolts, see also G.P. Verbrugghe, ‘Sicily 210-70 BC Livy, Cicero and Diodorus’, Transactions and Proceedings of the
American Philological Association
103 (1972): 535-59, and G.P. Verbrugghe, ‘Slave Rebellion or Sicily in Revolt?’, Kokalos 20 (1974): 46-60.

Thomas Grünewald has written a fascinating study in
Bandits in the Roman Empire, Myth and Reality,
trans. John Drinkwater (London and New York: Routledge, 2004).

Adrian Goldsworthy offers a concise introduction to the Roman way of war in Roman Warfare (New York: Smithsonian Books, 1999). His The Complete Roman Army (London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 2003) is a detailed overview of the legions and auxilia. For futher study, see his The Roman Army at War, 100 BC - AD 200 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996). Peter Connolly, Greece and Rome at War (London: Greenhill Books, 2006), offers superb illustrations and sound history. C.M. Gilliver, The Roman Art of War (Charleston, SC: Tempus, 1999), offers thoughtful analysis. P. Sabin,
Lost Battles: Reconstructing the Great Clashes of
the Ancient World (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2008), combines wargaming and scholarship to reconstruct the ancient battlefield. See also Sabin’s important article, ‘The Face of Roman Battle’, The Journal of Roman Studies 90 (2000): 1-17.

Some valuable studies of Roman logistics, equipment, marching order and discipline are M.C. Bishop and J.C.N. Coulston, Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (London: B.T. Batsford, 1993); J.P. Roth, The Logistics of the Roman Army at War (264 BC - AD 235) (Leiden: Brill, 1999).

On piracy in the Roman Mediterranean, see P. De Souza, Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) and the still valuable H.A. Ormerod, Piracy in the Ancient World. An Essay in Mediterranean History (Liverpool: The University Press of Liverpool, 1924).

On the Roman ideal of single combat, see S.P. Oakley, ‘Single Combat in the Roman Republic’, The Classical Quarterly 35, no.2 (1985): 392-410. See also the stimulating remarks of J.E. Lendon in Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), esp. 172-232.

On ‘barbarian’ warfare, see C. Webber,
The Thracians 700 BC - AD
46 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2001); S. Allen,
Celtic
Warrior, 300 BC - AD 100: Weapons, Armour, Tactics (Oxford: Osprey Military, 2001); J.-L. Brunaux,
Guerre et Religion en Gaule: Essai D’Anthropologie Celtique
(Paris: Editions Errance, 2004); Daithi O’Hogain,
Celtic Warriors: The Armies of One of the First Great
Peoples in Europe (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1999).

On guerrilla warfare and counter-insurgency, see R.B. Asprey, War in the Shadows, The Guerrilla in History, vol. I (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1975); R. Taber, War of the Flea. The Classic Study of Guerrilla Warfare (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2002); and C.E. Calwell, Small Wars: Their Principles and Practices, 3rd edn, with an introduction by Douglas Porch (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996).

Introductions to the ancient Thracians include R.F. Hoddinott, The Thracians (London: Thames & Hudson, 1981); Alexander Fol and Ivan Mazarov, Thrace and the Thracians (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1997); L. Casson, ‘The Thracians’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 35, no.1 (1977): 2-6. N.M.V. de Vries, ‘Die Stellung der Frau in der Thrakischen Gesellschaft’, Dritter Internationaler Thrakologischer Kongress 2 (1984): 315-21, is fundamental on Thracian women.

There is a large bibliography on the Celts. Two good introductions are B. Cunliffe, The Ancient Celts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); J. Haywood, Atlas of the Celtic World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2001). For the documents, see P. Freeman, War, Women and Druids. Eyewitness Reports and Early Accounts of the Ancient Celts (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002). On Celtic women, see M. Green, Celtic Goddesses: Warriors, Virgins and Mothers (London: British Museum, 1995); P.B. Ellis, Celtic Women: Women in Celtic Society and Literature (London: St Edmundsbury, 1995).

For an introduction to the ancient Germans, see Anthony King, Roman Gaul and Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).

For general considerations on Romans and barbarians, see B.W. Cunliffe,
Greeks, Romans and Barbarians: Spheres of Interaction
(New York: Methuen, 1988); P.S. Wells,
Beyond Celts,
Germans and Scythians: Archaeology and Identity in Iron Age Europe (London: Duckworth, 2001).

Mary Beard, John North and Simon Price, Religions of Rome, 2 vols. (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1998), is an essential history and sourcebook. Valerie Warrior offers a concise introduction in Roman Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

On the messianic aspects of the Roman slave revolts, see N.A. Mashkin, ‘Eschatology and Messianism in the Final Period of the Roman Republic’, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 10(2)(1949): 206-28, and P. Masiello, ‘L’Ideologica Messianica e le Rivolte Servili’, Annali della Facolta‘ di lettere e filosofia 11 (1966): 179-96.

A concise analysis of the Bacchanalia affair of 186 BC can be found in J.A. North, ‘Religious Toleration in Republican Rome’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 25 (1979): 85-103. See also P.G. Walsh, ‘Making a Drama out of a Crisis: Livy on the Bacchanalia’,
Greece & Rome
43 (1996): 188-203. A detailed and sophisticated analysis bringing in an archaeological perspective is J.-M. Pailler,
Bacchanalia: la répression de 186 av. J.-C. à Rome et en Italie (BEFAR 270)
(Rome: Ecole Française de Rome, 1988).

On Thracian religion, see Ivan Marazov, ‘Thracian Religion’, in Alexander Fol and Ivan Marazov, Thrace and the Thracians (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1977), 17-36; S.E. Johnson, ‘The Present State of Sabazios Research’, in H. Temporini and W. Haase, eds.,
Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt
vol.II 17.3. (1984): 1583-613; A. Fol,
The Thracian Dionysos. Book One: Zagreus
(Sofia: St Kliment Ohridski University Press, 1991); A. Fol, The Thracian Dionysos. Book Two. Sabazios (Sofia: St Kliment Ohridski University Press, 1994); N. Dimitrova, ‘Inscriptions and Iconography in the Monuments of the Thracian Rider’, Hesperia 71, no.2 (2002): 209-29.