So Queen Elizabeth's government came up with a brilliant idea: Print some
tickets (400,000 of them, to be precise) and get people to buy them. There
was a guaranteed prize every time (bring it on!) that was usually silver plate
or tapestry � what every young upwardly-mobile Elizabethan wanted. How
could it fail? Adverts appeared all over the place on scrolls that showed the
royal coat of arms and line-drawings of the prizes. As a bonus, people who
bought tickets could also feel really good about themselves, because the
money raised was for the `reparation of the havens [harbours] and strength
of the Realm [country] and towards such other publique good works.' Makes
you proud to be an Elizabethan, doesn't it?
And if you couldn't afford a ticket, you could buy a share in one � a third or a
sixteenth or whatever � sort of like today's syndicates.
The idea was dreamt up in 1566 and the first draw took place three years
later. By 1571, however, the idea was dropped � perhaps the world just
wasn't ready for lotteries.
Navigating with the First County
Maps in England (1579)
In the 21st century, many people would struggle to find their way from A to B
without their trusty satnavs, or at least without motorists' gazetteers. While
you're zooming along in your car, local radio stations warn you of delays on
motorways and large, lit signs remind you that `tiredness can kill' and tell you
to take a break.
Tudor travellers had no such gadgets and gizmos to help them on their way.
Instead, they trusted to luck for most of the century, relying on appalling
track-like roads and wooden sign-posts.
Then along came Christopher Saxton. He was the son of a Yorkshire farmer
(or clothier � perhaps both), born about 1540. In 1570 he was commissioned
by Thomas Seckford, Master of the Court of Requests, to draw maps of all
thirty-four counties in England and Wales.
To create his maps, Saxton used a system of triangulation first used in the
Netherlands forty years earlier; a Dutch expert, Remigius Hogenberg, worked
with him. Italian technology helped to produce these maps � a new engraving
technique had been developed there in the 1560s. Arty bits (which, sadly, we
don't use any more) like ships and sea-monsters were added later and each
map was hand-coloured. When each map was finished, it was sent to Cecil
for approval. On some of these maps, which still exist in the official archive
today, Cecil himself has written the number of troops he knew to be available
in each area.
The man who paid for all this, though, was Thomas Seckford (the queen was
superb at getting other people to fork out for her defence) but he did get his
coat of arms on the maps, so he was happy. So was Christopher Saxton. The
queen gave him a ten-year monopoly on all map-making in England and a nice
little manor house at Grigston in Suffolk.
Behind all this activity was William Cecil (see Chapters 12�18), Queen
Elizabeth's chief adviser, who needed accurate maps for political reasons:
rebels in the north, invading Scots, foreign armies landing on the coast, and
other eventualities. Cecil needed to know where, how far, and how long, and
where to locate the water supplies, the hills and the marshes.
There was one problem, though. There were no roads on Saxton's maps;
nobody thought it was necessary.
Writing with the First Shorthand System (1588)
In the year of the Armada (see Chapter 15) it was more vital than ever that
state secrets were kept secret. Nobody was more aware of that than Francis
Walsingham, Elizabeth's spymaster, and it can't be a coincidence that some-
one who knew him well was a man called Timothy Bright.
Bright was born in about 1551 near Sheffield and he graduated from Trinity
College, Cambridge in 1569. He was actually a medical student and was study-
ing in Paris in 1572 when Catherine de Medici launched her massacre of
Protestants there (see Chapter 13). Terrified, he ran for safety to the house
of the English ambassador, who happened to be Francis Walsingham, and a
relationship was born.
As a doctor, Bright wasn't very good. His time at St Bartholomew's Hospital
in London was very undistinguished, even though he was one of the first to
write about melancholy (depression) and its related medical conditions.
Perhaps because of his links with Walsingham, however, Bright went on to
write Characterie: the Art of Shorte, Swifte and Secret Writing by Character
and presented it to the queen in 1588. Like Pynson's cookery book, only one
copy of this books remains in existence � in the Bodleian Library in Oxford.
Bright used a series of lines, circles and half circles as 538 symbols for words.
Some letters were omitted from his alphabet, so, for example, his own name,
Timothy, would have to be spelt with an `i' at the end; he'd not included a `y'!
Bright may have intended to develop an international sign language but it
never happened, and it's possible that his shorthand system was used to
record church sermons to be printed and published later and perhaps even
the plays of Shakespeare and Marlowe.
Bright did better out of his shorthand system than he did in medicine. The
queen gave him a monopoly to publish his system for fifteen years.
Inventing the First Knitting
Frame (1589)
Some inventions were delayed because of their effect on existing systems �
the knitting frame was one.
The inventor, William Lee, was an Anglican curate born in 1563 in Calverton
near Nottingham, one of the most important of the textile areas in England.
He graduated from Christ's College, Cambridge, twenty years later, intending
to be an ordinary parish priest.
The story goes that Lee became furious with hand-knitting because his
fianc�e spent all her time making her own clothes and had no time for him!
Outraged, he started to think up ways of speeding up the knitting process.
The original machine he came up with had eight needles to the inch. The
result of this was coarse cloth, so he made modifications that included
twenty needles to enable his machine to make fine cloth. By 1598, Lee was
able to knit silk in this way too. He gave up the Church and focussed entirely
on his invention, taking the frame (small enough to fit into a country cottage)
to London to show to Baron Hunsdon and the court.
Queen Elizabeth was impressed, but in a very far-sighted and wise move, she
turned down his application for a patent because she realised the harm his
gadget would do to the hand knitters. James I felt the same when Lee tried
again in 1603. Only the 18th century didn't care, and by that time, it was all
about mechanical power, profit and greed, and Lee's knitting frame of two
centuries earlier came into its own. The result? Finely-knit stockings, wide-
spread unemployment and a working-class movement � the Luddites of the
early 1800s � determined to destroy machinery in the forlorn hope of keeping
their livelihoods.
Sir John Harington (1561�1612) is best remembered today as a courtier,
poet, wit and general pain in the neck. He was born near Bath as the son of
a courtier and he was the queen's godson. She called him `Boy Jacke' for the
rest of her life. He went to school at Eton and university at King's College,
Cambridge, getting his Master's degree in 1581. He married well and became
infamous at court for his risqu� poetry and naughty translations of Greek
poetry which upset almost everybody.
Harington's most famous gaffe was A New Discourse of a Stale Subject, called
the Metamorphosis of Ajax, printed in 1596. Now, you probably don't realise
it, but you've just heard an Elizabethan joke (tell it at parties � it'll be a riot!).
Ajax was a character in Greek Mythology, but jakes was a Tudor word for a
toilet or privy. Good, eh?
Well, the queen didn't think so and sent Harington `into the country' (in
other words, away from her) until he could behave himself. All this nonsense
disguised the fact that Harington had indeed changed the privy for ever.
His `device' (he never gave it a name) had a leather valve which opened and
closed by levers and a cistern which flushed waste with clean water. It also
had a stopper to prevent unpleasant smells from coming up from the cesspit
below.
Now the queen was in two minds over this. She hated making decisions
and Harington's device gave her a problem. She liked it enough to have one
installed in Richmond Palace, but probably didn't use it because there was
still no sewerage piping to carry waste away and because she was scared of
the gurgling noise it made.
If the queen had approved, of course, flush loos would have become all the
rage. Because she didn't, Englishmen and women had to make do with cham-
ber pots and holes in the ground for many years to come.
Nibbling the First Tomatoes in England (1597)
No, the Tudors didn't invent tomatoes. They weren't even the first people
to import them from where they grew in central and south America. In fact,
tomatoes in England nearly didn't happen at all.
Tomatoes were found in 1519 by Hernando Cortez, the Spanish conquista-
dor, in the garden of Montezuma (he of the `revenge'), the Aztec king. From
there, tomatoes got back to Spain and then on to Italy. Since they were called
pommi d'oro (golden apples) it's likely they were the yellow variety.
When botanists gave names to all sorts of plants later on, the tomato was
called Lycopersicon esculentum, which means `wolf-peach', and that's a clue
to why Englishmen didn't like them. The 2nd-century medical expert Galen
had described what appeared to be a tomato fourteen centuries earlier,
explaining that it contained a poison to kill wolves � hence the Latin name.
Galen wasn't very good but everybody thought he was, so the idea stuck.
One man who thought otherwise was John Gerard, a barber-surgeon who
may have been the first man to grow tomatoes in England. In his Herbal of
1597 he wrote that tomatoes were grown in Spain and Italy, and this was
probably reason enough to consider them poisonous. They were good, he
said, for treating gout and ulcers, but other antidotes were better and had no
side effects.
Gerard's Herbal, like Galen's writings, was highly influential, so it was nearly a
century before tomatoes were welcomed with open arms by the English.
Drinking the First Coffee
in England (1599)
Queen Elizabeth's England was full of brave, even foolhardy adventurers who
were prepared to risk their lives to find new worlds or at least grab the riches
they held.
One of these adventurers was Antony Sherley (1595�1630). Sherley sailed on
a completely unauthorized mission to Persia (today's Iran and Iraq) to set up
English trading posts and to get the shah (the Persian king) onside against
the Ottoman Turks. William Parry, one of Sherley's men, wrote the first
account of coffee drinking in English:
`They [the Turks; sit] drinking a certain liquor, which they do call Coffe,
which is made of seede much like mustard seede, which will soon intoxicate
the braine ...'
The Turks claimed it warmed them up when the weather was cold and was
cleansing because it made them break wind! Chapter 21: Ten Tudor Firsts 329 A number of Jacobean explorers and travellers mention coffee and the first coffee-house in England was probably opened in Oxford in 1652. Whether Sherley ever actually ever brought any of the beans back for roasting in England is open to doubt � Elizabeth's government made it clear he'd over- stepped the mark with his Persian adventure and he was told not to come back.
He was certainly back by 1603, however, when he annoyed James I in one of the king's many clashes with parliament. Sherley may or may not have been the first English coffee-drinker, but his arrest led to the vital change in the law which set up parliamentary privilege; an MP cannot be arrested just for speaking his mind. 330 Part V: The Part of Tens
astrology, 25, 288, 289 �A� Attainder, act of, 78, 97 agreement of the tenants, 124 The Augsburg Confession (book), 143 agriculture, 17, 36 Alba, Duke of, 181, 183, 187, 212, 235,
255�256
�B� Alcock, John, Bishop of Worcester (lord Babington plot, 237, 253
chancellor), 37 Bacon, Nicholas (lord keeper of the great Alen�on, Fran�ois, Duke of (son of seal), 200
Catherine de Medici), 204 barber-surgeons, 23 Anabaptists, 141, 144, 246 Barnes, Robert (friar), 110 Anatomie of Abuses (Stubbes), 246�247 Barnet, battle of, 30 Andre, Bernard (poet), 50 Barton, Elizabeth (holy maid of Kent), 89 Anglo-French Treaty of Westminster, 75 The Bear (theatre), 25 Anjou, Duke of (Henri of Valois), 203 Beaufort, Margaret (mother of Henry VII), Anne Hathaway's Cottage, Shottery, 11, 30, 47, 311, 322
Warwickshire, 305�306 Becket, Thomas (saint), 16, 106, 114 Anne of Cleves, Queen of England Bess of Hardwick, 284�285, 310
marriage nullified, 95 Bible
marriage to Henry VIII, 93�95 belief in, 301
portraits of, 62, 94 English, 16, 78, 104, 109, 110, 169 Anne of the Thousand Days (film), 62, 91, 99 birthrate, 25 apothecaries, 23 The Bishops' Book, 105 Archdeacon's Consistory Court, 24 Black Death (bubonic plague), 19, 22, 209 architecture. See buildings of the Tudor era bleeding, medical practice of, 86 Armada, Spanish Blount, Bessie (mistress of Henry VIII), 63,
attack route and battles, 266 86, 87
England's defeat of, 262�266, 318�319 Blount, Charles (Lord Mountjoy), 276
preparing for invasion, 258�262 Bodenham, Cecily (nun), 286�287 army, British, 127 Boleyn, Anne, Queen of England Arthur, Prince of Wales (son of Henry VII) accused of adultery and witchcraft, 77,
Catherine of Aragon, wife of, 46, 47, 84�85 90�91, 315
death of, 47, 49, 57, 85 Elizabeth I and, 66, 216
Henry VII, father of, 41 execution of, 91, 315 Arundel, Earl of, 152 marriage to Henry VIII, 61�62, 66, 71, 77, Ascham, Roger (tutor), 110 87�91 Ashley, Catherine (confidante of nullification of marriage to Henry VIII, 91
Elizabeth I), 120, 200 portraits of, 84, 88 Askew, Anne (Protestant martyr), 283�284 Thomas Cromwell and, 77, 89 Assertion of the Seven Sacraments, 103 Thomas Wyatt as lover, 163 332 The Tudors For Dummies
Boleyn, Mary (mistress of Henry VIII), 63, Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, 310
87, 91 Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster Abby,
Boleyn, Thomas (Earl of Wiltshire), 63 London, 311
Bolt, Robert (A Man For All Seasons), 80 Penshurst Place, Kent, 311�312
Bonner, Edmund, Bishop of London, Tudor house, 21
135, 143 Bullinger, Heinrich (Swiss reformer), 141
Book of Common Prayer burgesses (citizens of towns), 38
Catholic response to, 144 Burgh, Sir Thomas, governor of Ireland, 272
Elizabeth I and, 217, 219 Burghley, Lord. See Cecil, Sir William, Lord
introducing, 137�138 Burghley (secretary of state)
repealing, 170 Burghley House, Stamford, 306�307
response to, 138�141 Burgundian Circle, 254
revising, 142�143 Butler, James, Earl of Ormond and Ossary,
The Book of Husbandry (Fitzherbert), 17, 18 176
Book of Martyrs (Foxe), 142, 175, 284, Byrd, William (musician), 26
290�291
Bosworth Field, battle of, 9, 34�35, 157, 313
Bothwell, Earl of, 227 �C�
Brandon, Thomas (first master of the Cabot, John (explorer), 48
horse), 205 Cadiz, Spain, taking of, 260, 261, 275�276
Brandon, William (standard bearer), 157 Calais, 58, 187�189, 222�223
Bray, Sir Reginald (architect), 322 calendar, Julian, 2
Brereton, William, 91 Calvin, John (Protestant reformer), 142,
Bridewell, London, 82 246
Bright, Timothy (shorthand system Cambridge University, 21, 219, 309
inventor), 325�326 Camp, treaty of, 121�122
Britain, 2, 127 Campeggio, Cardinal Lorenzo (pope's
British Army, 127 protector of England), 75
British Colonies in America, 48 Campion, Edmund (Jesuit conspirator), 237
British History For Dummies (Lang), 187 cannons, 186, 263, 308
Brittany, 29, 30�31, 45 Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 287
Brittany, Duke of (Francis), 45�46 card games, 64
bubonic plague (Black Death), 19, 22, 209 Cardmaker, John (Protestant preacher),
Bucer, Martin (scholar), 141 173
Buckingham, Duke of, 32, 33, 79 Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight, 267, 307
buildings of the Tudor era Carry One Henry! (film), 62
about, 305 Castle Ashby, 308
Anne Hathaway's Cottage, 305�306 Cateau-Cambr�sis, treaty of, 222
Burghley House, Stamford, 306�307 Cathedrals, becoming secular, 113
Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight, 267, 307 Catherine de Medici, 203, 204, 222
Compton Wynyates, Warwickshire, Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England
307�308 annulment of marriage to Henry VIII, 88,
Deal Castle, Kent, 308�309 106�107
Great Court of Trinity College, Arthur, prince of Wales, husband of, 46,
Cambridge, 309 47, 84�85
Hampton Court, London, 73, 82, 309�310 banishment and death of, 58, 89 Index 333
betrothal to Henry VIII, 57 Chapel Royal Choir, 65
dowry of, 58 chapels, private (chantries), 136
Henry VIII, husband of, 47, 58, 75, 79, Chapman, Richard (shipwright), 261
85�87, 106�107 Charles of Austria, 203, 226
Henry VII's annulment, 75 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
kings "great matter" and, 71 becomes holy Roman emperor, 59
Mary I, daughter of, 58 Catherine of Aragon and, 88
portraits of, 84 Henry VIII and, 75 Catherine of Valois, Queen of England (wife ignoring the pope, 88
of Henry V), 11, 12 John Dudley and, 153�154 Catholicism/papacy. See also religion map of empire, 153
Catholic versus Protestant beliefs, 102 Mary I and, 123, 139, 162�163
Counter-Reformation, 108, 141, 203, moving Philip to the Netherlands, 179
215�216 Netherlands and, 254
Edward VI's reforms and, 170 Philip II, son of, 162, 170�171
Elizabeth I and, 216, 218, 233�234, 317�318 war with France, 59�61
English kings and, 105�106 Charles VIII, King of France, 45�46
Holy Inquisition, 141, 170, 173 chartered towns, 19
Mary I and, 16, 139, 146�147, 167�171, 190 Chatsworth House, 285
overview, 16�17 Chaucer, Geoffrey (Canterbury Tales), 287
papist robes and, 142 Cheke, John (tutor), 98, 110, 134
Parliament's anti-Catholicism, 244�245 childbed fever (septicaemia), 93
response to Book of Common Prayer, 144 childbirth, 25, 85
schools run by, 21 chroniclers versus historians, 293
seven sacraments, 103 Church of England. See also Book of
traditional ideas of, 104 Common Prayer Cavendish, William (commissioner), 284 Bill of Uniformity, 138, 217, 244 Cecil, Robert (principal secretary/ Bishops' Book, 105
spymaster), 271, 275, 276, 279, 280 career in, 22 Cecil, Sir William, Lord Burghley (secretary Elizabeth I and, 16, 215�220, 231
of state) Forty Two (42) Articles of Faith, 144
Burghley House of, 306�307 Henry VIII as supreme head of, 71,
conspiracy against, 228�230 108�109
death of, 277 Henry VIII breaking with Rome, 101,
Elizabeth I and, 23, 200, 277, 325 106�108, 299�300, 304, 314
Mildren Cooke, wife of, 23 Protestantism and, 133
need for accurate maps, 325 royal visitations, 105, 135, 170
privateers (pirates) and, 252 Six Articles, 79, 104, 135
support of Edward Seymour, 129 Supplication against the Ordinaries, 106 Chamber. See Privy Chamber Thirty Nine (39) Articles of Faith, 219 Chancellor, Richard (explorer), 303 Church Settlement of 1559, 316 chantries (private chapels), 136 Cistercian Abbey of Boxley, 113 Chapel of Henry VII, Westminster Abby, Cistercians, 142
London, 311 Civil List (King's Household expenditure), Chapel Royal, 14, 135 38 334 The Tudors For Dummies
class response to, 141
clothing and, 26�27 stalling, 215�216
education and, 21�22 Court, royal. See also Privy Chamber; Privy
Clement VII, Pope Council
excommunicating Henry VIII, 108 councils, 14�15
Henry VIII's annulment, 75, 106�107, 108 described, 12
Cleves, Anne. See Anne of Cleves, Queen of Household, royal, 13�14, 38, 114
England main parts of, 13�15
Cleves-Julich, Duke of, 93 monarchs working through, 12�13
Clinton, English Vice Admiral, 122 Court of Augmentation of the King's
Clinton, Lord (admiral), 200 Revenue, 114
cloth trade, 182, 212 Court of Requests or Poor Men's Causes,
clothing, 26�27, 142 74
coffee, discovery of, 328�329 Court of Star Chamber, 39, 73, 74
coins/money, 3, 102, 152 Courtenay, Edward, Earl of Devon, 161,
Columbus, Christopher (explorer), 48, 49 162, 164
comic interludes, 25 courts, types of, 24�25
common folk Coverdale, Miles (Bible translator), 110
adapting to religious changes, 169 Cox, Richard (tutor), 110
homes of, 21 craftsmen, 18
life of, 17�20 Cranmer, Thomas, Archbishop of
Compton, Edmund, 307�308 Canterbury
Compton Wynyates, Warwickshire, 307�308 annulling Henry VIII-Anne of Cleves
Cooke, Mildred (wife of William Cecil), 23 marriage, 95
cookery book, first, 323 annulling Henry VIII-Catherine of Aragon
Coryat, Tom (traveller), 303 marriage, 88
Council, privy. See also Royal Court appointing bishops, 135
burning heretics and, 174 Book of Common Prayer, 138, 141, 142, 143
councillors, 15 execution of, 174
Court of Star Chamber, 39, 73, 74 Forty Two (42) Articles of Faith, 144
described, 39 Henry VIII's support of, 79
of Elizabeth I, 14, 15, 200�201, 271�272 interrogating Catherine Howard, 96�97
Ireland and, 272�273 John Dudley and, 150
of Mary I, 161 Mary I and, 168, 174
members of, 14�15 reforms of, 109, 135, 136�138, 141�144,
ousting Edward Seymour as lord 145
protector, 129�130 visitations, 135, 137
Robert Devereux and, 271�272, 275 writing preface to English Bible, 110
trial of Thomas Seymour, 120 crime, 23�24
Council of Trent, 141, 218 Cromwell, Thomas, Privy Councillor
councils, town, 19 Anne of Cleeves recommended by, 62
counterfeiting, 236 Articles of Visitation drawn up by, 105
Counter-Reformation Catherine of Aragon and, 88
Pope Paul III and, 108 as chief councillor for lordship of Ireland,
problems with, 203 42�43 Index 335
Court of Augmentation of the King's surgeons, 23
Revenue, 114 Sweating Sickness (Sudor Anglicus), 22,
dissolving monasteries, 77, 111, 114 150
English Bible supported by, 78 women and, 86
execution of, 78, 110 divine right of kings, 38
friars and, 113�114 Domesday, 111
king's "great matter" and, 76�77 Don Carlos, son of Philip II, 226
as Lord Privy Seal, 78 Dormer, Jane (lady-in-waiting for Mary I),
losing favor with Henry VIII, 70 195
network of agents and spies, 77 double rose heraldry, 37
removing Anne Boleyn, 77, 89 Drake, Francis (privateer)
Royal Supremacy and, 89 capturing San Felipe (treasure ship), 260 Crowley, Robert (writer), 124 knighted by Elizabeth I, 214 Crown Jewels, 199 looting Spanish settlements, 252, 257�258 Culpepper, Thomas (lover of Queen losing favor with Elizabeth I, 268
Catherine Howard), 96, 97 Spanish Armada and, 262 The Curtain (theatre), 25 war with Spain, 260�261
dry dock, first, 321�322 �D� Dudley, Amy (wife of Robert Dudley),
206�207 dances, 26 Dudley, Guildford (husband of Lady Jane Darnley, Henry (Earl of Lennox), 226, 227 Grey), 159, 163 Deal Castle, Kent, 308�309 Dudley, Jane. See Grey, Lady Jane, Queen death penalty, 24 of England Dee, John (astrologer), 253, 288�289 Dudley, John, Duke of Northumberland. Dekker, Thomas (poet), 278 See also Warwick, Earl of (John Dereham, Francis (lover of Queen Dudley)
Catherine Howard), 96, 97 Charles V and, 153�154 Devereux, Robert (Earl of Essex), 269�275 death of Edward VI and, 158 A Discoverie of Witches (Scot), 249 Edward Seymour and, 149�151 disease and medicine enemies of, 152
apothecaries, 23 execution of, 160
barber-surgeons, 23 Kett's Rebellion suppressed by, 127
Black Death (bubonic plague), 19, 22, 209 as lord president of the Council, 130�131,
bleeding, medical practice of, 86 149�151
childbed fever (septicaemia), 93 Mary I and, 158, 159, 160
childbirth and, 25, 85 Thomas Cranmer and, 150
flu epidemic, 189�190 Dudley, Robert, Earl of Leicester
illness as work of devil or wrath of God, Amy Dudley, wife of, 206�207
190 death of, 207
infant death rate, 55, 86 Elizabeth I and, 204�207, 209
midwives, 25 Mary Stuart and, 225
physicians, 23 in the Netherlands, 258 336 The Tudors For Dummies
commitment to sea power, 211
�E� coronation, 199
earl marshal, 272 Council, choosing, 200�201
East India Company, 253 death of, 277�278, 280
Edinburgh, treaty of, 224, 225 excommunicated by Pope Pius V, 230,
education, 21�23 234, 317�318
Edward I, King of England, 299 foreign policy, 253
Edward II (Marlowe), 286 Francis Drake and, 214, 268
Edward IV, King of England, 30, 32, 40 as Gloriana, the Virgin Queen, 316
Edward V, King of England, 32, 33 going on progresses, 207�209
Edward VI, King of England Henry VIII, father of, 231
ancestry, 10�12 inspiring the troops, 265
birth of, 67, 92 Ireland and, 220�221, 239�243
as boy-king, 118 John Hawkins' sea trips backed by,
character, 155 211, 212
childhood, 156 Mary I and, 161, 164, 168, 191�192,
coronation, 119 193�194
death of, 158 Mary Stuart and, 228, 239
education of, 118, 134 money management, 210
Edward Seymour as lord protector, 118 Netherlands war, 256�257
Henry VIII's death and, 117�118 Northern Rebellion, 228�230
illness, 118, 156 Parliament and, 217�218, 243�246