Three Scientific Revolutions: How They Transformed Our Conceptions of Reality (35 page)

35.
Sir Isaac Newton,
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World,
Vol. II, Motte's trans. revised by Florian Cajori (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1962), p. 397. Until or unless otherwise indicated, the subsequent parenthetical citations are to this work.

36.
Westfall,
Never at Rest
, p. 473. Until otherwise indicated, subsequent parenthetical citations are to this work.

37.
I. Bernard Cohen,
Franklin and Newton
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), p. 120. Further textual references to this work will be followed by the author's name and page number.

38.
Sir Isaac Newton,
The First Book of Opticks,
Book three, Part 1, in
Opticks
or
A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light
. The subsequent parenthetical citations will be to this work unless otherwise indicated.

39.
Schlagel,
From Myth to Modern Mind
, Vol. II,
Copernicus through Quantum Mechanics
, pp. 324–25.

40.
William Gilbert,
De Magnete
, trans. by P. Fleury Mottelay (New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1958), p. x; brackets added. Unless or until otherwise indicated, the subsequent parenthetical citations are to this work.

41.
Duane Roller and Duane H. D. Roller,
The Development of the Concept of Electric Charge: Electricity from the Greeks to Coulomb
, in James Bryant Conant, General Ed. and Leonard K. Nash, Associate Ed., Vol II,
Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), p. 560. This section includes three drawings of Hauksbee's ingenious apparatuses. Unless or until otherwise indicated, the immediately following parenthetical citations are to this work.

42.
Schlagel,
From Myth to Modern Mind,
Vol. II,
Copernicus through Quantum Mechanics
, p. 330. Until otherwise indicated, all parenthetical citations are to this work.

43.
Cohen,
Franklin and Newton
, p. 468.

44.
Roller,
The Development of the Concept of Electrical Charge
, pp. 604–605. The subsequent parenthetical citations are also to this work until otherwise indicated.

45.
Plato,
The Republic,
Part III, Ch. XXIII, Sec. VI, 509c
.

46.
Peter Achinstein,
Particles and Waves
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 19. The following two parenthetical citations are to this work.

47.
Sir Edmund Whittaker,
A History of the Theories of Aether & Electricity
, Vol. I,
The Classical Theories
(New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960), p. 171.

48.
Albert Einstein and Leopold Infeld,
The Evolution of Physics
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1951), pp. 155–56.

49.
Joseph Priestley,
Experiments on Air
, 1790, Vol. I, p. 248. Quoted from J. R. Partington,
A Short History of Chemistry
, third ed. Revised and enlarged (New York: Harper and Brothers 1960), p. 137. The following three parenthetical citations are to this work.

50.
James Bryant Conant,
The Overthrow of the Phlogiston Theory
, in James Bryant Conant, General Ed. and Leonard K. Nash, Associate Ed.,
Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science
, Vol. I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948), pp. 69–70.

51.
Elizabeth C. Patterson,
John Dalton and the Atom Theory: The Biography of a Natural Philosopher
(New York: Anchor Books, 1970), p. 21. This summary of Dalton's early life and the textual references are largely based on her excellent study. Subsequent parenthetical references are to this work.

52.
Leonard K. Nash,
The Atomic-Molecular Theory
, in James Bryant Conant, General Ed. and Leonard K. Nash, Associate Ed.,
Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science
, Vol. 1, p. 222. The immediately following parenthetical reference is also to this work.

53.
Frank Greenaway,
John Dalton and the Atom
(Ithaca: Cornell University. Press, 1966), p. 133. The following quotation is also to this work.

54.
This discussion of J. J. Berzelius is based on Bill Bryson,
A Short History of Nearly Everything
(New York: Broadway Books, 2003), pp. 105–106.

55.
Nash,
The Atomic-Molecular Theory
, p. 248. All of the subsequent extensive numerical citations are to the work.

56.
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, Faraday Lecture, 1889,
The Principles of Chemistry
, Vol II, in William C. Dampier and Margaret Dampier (eds.),
Readings in the Literature of Science
(New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1959), p. 115.

57.
Michio Kaku,
The Future of the Mind
(New York: Doubleday, 2014), p. 133.

58.
Albert Einstein and Leopold Infeld,
The Evolution of Physics
, p. 129.

59.
Peter Achinstein,
Particles and Waves
, pp. 17–19.

60.
Isaac Newton,
Principia Mathematica
, Vol. II, p. 547.

61.
Singer,
A Short History of Scientific Idea to 1900
, p. 360
.
The subsequent parenthetical citation is also to this work.

62.
G. Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen,
Annals of Physics and Chemistry
110 (1860): 160; trans. in
Philosophical Magazine
, 20 (1860): 89. Quoted from Abraham Pais,
Inward Bound
(Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 168. Until otherwise indicated, the subsequent parenthetical citations are to this work.

63.
J. J. Thomson, “Cathode Rays,”
Philosophical Magazine
44 (August 7, 1897), p. 311.

64.
Richard R. Schlagel, “The Waning of the Light: The Eclipse of Philosophy,”
Review of Metaphysics
57 (September 2003): 105.

65.
Emilio Segrè,
From X-Rays to Quarks: Modern Physicists and Their Discoveries
(San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1980), p. 47. The following two parenthetical citations are to this work.

66.
Pais,
Inward Bound
, p. 112. The following quotation is also to this work.

67.
Max Planck,
Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers,
trans. by G. Gaynor (London: William and Norgate, 1950), p. 7. Quoted from Abraham Pais,
Niels Bohr's Times: In Physics, Philosophy, and Polity
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 83.

68.
Armin Hermain,
The Genesis of Quantum Theory
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971), p. 23. Quoted from Segrè,
From X-rays to Quarks
, p. 76. The following three parenthetical citations are also to this work.

69.
Planck,
Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers
, p. 7. Quoted from Abraham Pais,
Niels Bohr's Times
, p. 86.

70.
Albert Einstein,
Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist
, “Autobiographical Notes,” ed. by Paul Arthur Schilpp (Evanston, IL: The Library of Living Philosophers, Inc., 1949), p. 45.

71.
Jean Perrin,
Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality
, trans. by F. Soddy (London: Taylor and Frances, 1910), concluding paragraph. Quoted from Abraham Pais,
“Subtle is the Lord . . .”: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 95.

72.
For a schematic representation of the experiment see Leo Sartori,
Under­­standing Relativity
(Berkeley and Los Angles: University of California Press, 1996), p. 30.

73.
Albert A. Michelson,
American Journal of Science
22 (1881): 120. Quoted from Abraham Pais, “
Subtle is the Lord . . . ,
” p. 112. The subsequent parenthetical citation is to this work.

74.
Albert Einstein,
Relativity: The Special and General Theory
(New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1961), pp. 32–34.

75.
G. J. Whitrow,
The Structure and Evolution of the Universe
(New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1959, p. 85.

76.
Milic Capek,
The Philosophic Impact of Contemporary Physics
(New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1961), p. 201.

77.
Pais,
“Subtle is the Lord . . . ,”
p. 178.

78.
Albert Einstein,
James Clerk Maxwell
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931), p. 66. Quoted from Abraham Pais,
Inward Bound
, p. 244.

79.
Pais,
Inward Bound
, p. 189.

80.
Jean-Baptiste Perrin,
Review Scientifique
15 (1901): 447. Quoted from Pais,
Inward Bound
, p. 183.

81.
Segrè,
From X-Rays to Quarks
, p. 136.

82.
Yuval Ne'eman and Yoram Kirsh,
The Particle Hunters
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 14. The subsequent parenthetical quotation is also to this work.

83.
Philosophical Magazine
37 (1919): 581. Quoted from Segrè,
From X-Rays to Quarks
, p. 110.

84.
Niels Bohr,
Philosophical Magazine
25 (1913): 10. Quoted from Pais,
Niels Bohr's Times
, p. 128.

85.
Pais,
Inward Bound
, p. 198. The subsequent parenthetical citation is to this work.

86.
Robert P. Crease and Charles C. Mann,
The Second Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Twentieth-Century Physics
(New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1986), p. 27.

87.
Pais,
Inward Bound
, p. 199.

88.
Pais,
Niels Bohr's Times
, p. 152.

89.
Einstein,
Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist
, pp. 45–47.

90.
Abraham Pais,
Niels Bohr's Time
, p. 152.

91.
Ne'eman and Kirsh,
The Particle Hunters
, p. 37. The subsequent parenthetical citation is also to this work.

92.
Werner Heisenberg,
Physics and Beyond: Encounters and Conversations
, trans., from the German by Arnold J. Pomerans (New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc., 1972), p. 38. Until otherwise indicated, the subsequent parenthetical citations are to this work.

93.
Crease and Mann,
The Second Creation
, p. 50. The subsequent parenthetical citation is to this work.

94.
Ne'eman and Kirsh,
The Particle Hunters
, p. 44. The following two parenthetical quotations are to this work.

95.
Crease and Mann,
The Second Creation
, pp. 52–53. I have rearranged the brackets to make the quotation more grammatical.

96.
J. C. Polkinghorne,
The Quantum World
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), p. 30. For those who are interested, in addition to giving the formula, he describes the meaning of the different mathematical symbols more fully.

97.
Pais,
Niels Bohr's Times
, p. 285. In footnotes Pais gives the sources for this quotation.

98.
Crease and Mann,
The Second Creation
, p. 55. The immediately following two parenthetical quotations are to this work.

99.
Pais,
Niels Bohr's Times
, p. 286. The subsequent parenthetical quotation is to this work.

100.
Max Born,
My Life and My Views
(New York: Charles Scribners and Sons, 1968), p. 55.

101.
Segrè,
From X-Rays to Quarks
, p. 165.

102.
Pierre-Simon Laplace,
Inroduction à la théorie analytique des probabilities
(Paris:
Oeuvres Complètes
, 1886), p. VI. Quoted from Capek,
The Philosophic Impact of Contemporary Physics
, p. 122.

103.
Quotation from Abraham Pais,
Niels Bohr's Times
, p. 309.

104.
Werner Heisenberg,
Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science
(New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1958), p. 42.

105.
Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen, “Can Quantum Mechanical Descriptions of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?”
Physical Review
47 (1935): 777–80.

106.
Niels Bohr, “Can Quantum-Mechanical Descriptions of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?”
Physical Review
48 (1935): 696–702.

107.
Niels Bohr,
The Philosophical Writing of Niels Bohr
, Vol. III,
Essays 1958–62 on Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge
(Woodbridge: Ox Bow Press, 1987), p. 4.

108.
Ne'eman and Kirsh,
The Particle Hunters
, p. 53. My simplified brief discussion of spin and the following description of the “Pauli Exclusion Principle” are based on this work as are the following three parenthetical citations, though I am responsible for any oversimplifications or misinterpretations. Describing these more recent quantum mechanical developments is much more difficult because of their greater complexity and the fact that their dependence on the mathematical formulation makes it difficult to render it in ordinary language. The following three mathematical quotations are to this work.