A People's History of the World: From the Stone Age to the New Millennium (97 page)

Helvetius:
French materialist philosopher of 18th century, part of Enlightenment.

Hidalgo, Miguel:
Mexican priest who led uprising against Spanish in 1810, shot in 1811.

Hilferding, Rudolf:
Austrian Marxist economist, active in German socialist movement. Attempted middle way between Bolshevism and right wing Social Democracy in 1919-20. Social Democrat finance minister in coalition governments of autumn of 1923 and 1928. Resigned 1929, impotent in face of economic crisis. Murdered by Nazis in exile 1940.

Hindenburg, Paul von:
Commanded German armed forces with near-dictatorial power in First World War. President of German Republic 1925-34. Appointed Hitler as chancellor January 1933.

Ho Chi Minh:
Vietnamese Communist leader from 1920s. Leader of Vietminh resistance to Japanese and French colonial rule. Ruler of North Vietnam after 1954, symbol of resistance to US in 1960s and early 1970s, ruler of all Vietnam after May 1975.

Hobsbawm, Eric:
British historian, Communist Party member for half a century, author of four volumes of history from 1780s to present day.

Hugenberg, Alfred:
German newpaper and film magnate, right wing leader of conservative National Party, member of Hitler’s cabinet January-June 1933.

Iglesias, Pablo:
Founded Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) 1879, its president until 1925.

Jefferson, Thomas:
Plantation owner in Virginia in second half of 18th century, drew up Declaration of Independence, president of US 1801-09.

John Knox:
Leader of Calvinist Reformation in late 16th century Scotland.

Johnson, Lyndon Baines:
President of US 1963-68.

Josephus:
Jewish leader of revolt against Rome who switched sides and then wrote famous history.

Justinian:
Emperor of Byzantium mid-6th century AD. Tried to reconquer Italy and north Africa. Oversaw completion of Saint Sophia cathedral.

Kautsky, Karl:
Best known intellectual in German socialist movement after death of Engels. Known as ‘pope of Marxism’, disliked First World War but opposed revolutionary action against it. Opponent of Bolshevik Revolution.

Kennedy, Robert:
Brother of J F Kennedy. Attorney-general during his presidency of US 1960-63. Supporter of Vietnam War until popular opposition to it exploded in 1968. Assassinated while campaigning for presidency.

Kepler, Johannes:
Astronomer and mathematician who developed Copernicus’s ideas in late 16th and early 17th centuries.

Kerensky, Alexander:
Led Russian provisional government summer-autumn 1917.

Keynes, John Maynard:
English liberal and free market economist who became convinced of need for state intervention in 1930s.

Khrushchev, Nikita:
Former Stalinist overlord in Ukraine who became leader of USSR soon after Stalin’s death in 1953. Denounced Stalin in 1956 and 1958. Crushed Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Removed from office in 1964 by Brezhnev.

Kipling, Rudyard:
British writer of late 19th and early 20th centuries, born in India.

Kissinger, Henry:
In charge of foreign policy for US Republican governments 1968-76. War criminal who received Nobel Peace Prize.

Kitchener, Lord:
British general responsible for Omdurman (Sudan) massacre of 1898 and concentration camps in Boer War in South Africa. Head of military in First World War until death in 1916.

Lafargue, Paul:
Son-in-law of Karl Marx, led Marxist wing of French socialist movement until suicide in 1911.

Lafayette:
French general, assisted American colonies in War of Independence, dominant government figure first two years of French Revolution, in exile under republic, helped Louis Philippe become king 1830.

Lamartine, Alphonse:
French poet and historian who played key role in French second republic of 1848.

Lenin, Vladimir:
Early member of Marxist organisation in Russia, leader of its Bolshevik wing after 1903. Leader of Soviet government after 1917, incapacitated early 1923, died 1924.

Lewis, John L:
Leader of US miners’ union, founded CIO union federation mid-1930s.

Liebknecht, Karl:
German Social Democrat MP, opponent of First World War, founder member of Spartakusbund revolutionary group, imprisoned, proclaimed socialist republic November 1918, murdered January 1919.

Liu Shaoqi (Liu Shao-ch’i):
Leading Chinese Communist from late 1920s on. President after 1962. Removed from office and disgraced during Cultural Revolution 1966-67.

Lloyd George, David:
A leader of British Liberal Party 1900-40. Introduced radical budget before First World War, but formed coalition with Tories 1916 and ruled with them until 1922. Partitioned Ireland 1921.

Louis Bonaparte (also known as Napoleon III):
Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon I), elected president of France 1848, emperor 1852-70.

Louis XIV:
French king whose reign saw enormous growth in power of monarchy, built palace at Versailles.

Louis XV:
Ruler of France for much of first half of 18th century.

Loyola, Ignatius:
Founded Jesuits to propagate Roman Catholicism forcefully in mid-16th century.

Ludendorff, Erich:
German general with virtually dictatorial powers alongside Hindenburg in First World War. Allied with Hitler in 1923 but later fell out with him.

Luther, Martin:
Dissident German monk who led Protestant break with Rome after 1517.

Luxemburg, Rosa:
Born of Jewish family in Russian-occupied Poland in 1871. In exile from late 1880s. Leader of revolutionary left within both German and Polish socialist movements. In prison in First World War, murdered January 1919.

Macchiavelli, Niccolò:
Civil servant in Florence around 1500, famous for his book
The Prince
, which seems to glorify the most unscrupulous political methods.

MacDonald, Ramsay:
Founder member of Independent Labour Party in Britain in mid-1890s, leader of Labour Party before First World War. Opposed war from non-revolutionary standpoint 1914. Prime minister in Labour minority governments 1924 and 1929-31. Switched sides to lead Tory ‘National’ government 1931-35.

Mahdi:
Mohammed Ahmed, leader of Sudanese revolt against British-run Egypt in 1880s.

Malraux, André:
Left wing French writer of late 1920s and early 1930s. Helped organise Republican air force in Spanish Civil War. Supporter of General de Gaulle after Second World War. Minister in Gaullist governments after 1958.

Malthus, Thomas:
English clergyman of late 18th and early 19th centuries—his theory of population claimed increasing their wealth would make the poor poorer.

Mann, Tom:
Engineering worker, played leading role in dock strike of 1889, Great Unrest 1910-14, joined Communist Party 1921.

Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung):
Leader of Chinese Communist Party from early 1930s and of Chinese government after 1949. Played only figurehead role 1962-66. Returned to full influence with ‘Cultural Revolution’. Died 1975.

Marat, Jean-Paul:
Doctor to upper classes who became hero of poor during French Revolution after 1789. Worked with Robespierre and Danton to establish Jacobin government in 1793, hated by ‘moderates’ and assassinated July 1793.

Marcuse, Herbert:
German Marxist philosopher living in US after Hitler came to power. Inspirer of many left wing ideas in 1968.

Marie-Antoinette:
Austrian princess and queen of France executed by revolution.

Marius:
General who used support of poor to push for power in Rome around 100 BC.

Mary Stuart:
Mary Queen of Scots, executed by Elizabeth I of England.

Mary Tudor:
‘Bloody Mary’, queen of England and wife of Philip II of Spain, tried to reimpose Roman Catholicism in England in mid-16th century.

McClellan, George:
Head of Northern army in American Civil War, 1861-62.

Medici:
Name of merchant and banking family that dominated life of 15th and 16th century Florence. Patrons of many Renaissance artists. Included two popes, and a 16th century French queen.

Moctezuma (sometimes Montezuma):
Aztec ruler conquered by Spanish.

Molotov, Vyacheslav:
Bolshevik activist in 1917, supporter of Stalin from early 1920s, leading figure in Russian regime until purged by Khrushchev 1958.

Morelos, Jose Maria:
Mexican priest, led revolt against Spanish after death of Hidalgo, shot 1815.

Müntzer, Thomas (sometimes spelt Münzer):
Religious revolutionary during Reformation who played important role during Peasant War of 1525, executed by princes with support of Martin Luther. Not to be confused with town of Munster, which subsequent religious rebels seized in early 1530s.

Mussolini, Benito:
Leader of Italian fascism. Started off as left wing socialist, became enthusiastic nationalist in First World War. Took power 1922, invaded Ethiopia 1935, joined war on German side 1940, overthrown in southern Italy 1943, ran pro-German puppet government in north, hanged upside down by partisans 1945.

Nasser, Abdul:
Army officer, led revolution against Egyptian monarchy 1952, president 1956 until death in 1970. Inspired nationalists throughout Arab world.

Nehru, Jawaharlal:
Harrow-educated leader of Indian National Congress from 1920s. Imprisoned Second World War, prime minister 1947-64.

Nixon, Richard:
US president and war criminal, driven from office for Watergate burglary of Democratic Party office in 1975.

Octavian:
Later Roman emperor Augustus, nephew of Julius Caesar.

Orwell, George:
English writer, socialist in 1930s, fought in Spain with far left POUM party, supported revolutionary stance in
Homage to Catalonia
, satirised Stalinism in
Animal Farm
and
1984
.

Owen, Robert:
Pioneering industrialist of early 19th century who became convinced of need for form of socialism based on cooperative communities.

Paine, Tom:
British-born artisan, leading pamphleteer for American Revolution, returned to Britain to champion French Revolution, forced to flee country and then imprisoned by Jacobins in France.

Palmerston, Lord:
Dominant figure in many British Whig governments of 1830s to 1860s.

Papen, Franz von:
Chancellor of Germany, May-November 1932, vice-chancellor in Hitler’s government 1933-34, then ambassador for Nazi regime.

Paul, Saint:
Saul of Tarsus, Jew with Roman citizenship, converted to Christianity. Responsible for spread of Christianity across Greek and Roman worlds and for most of its doctrines.

Perón, Juan:
Colonel, president of Argentina 1946 with mass popular support and dictatorial powers. Overthrown 1955. Returned to power mid-1973, succeeded on death by wife ‘Isabelita’, who was overthrown by coup in 1976.

Pizarro, Francisco:
Led Spanish conquest of Incas in early 1530s.

Plato:
Ancient Greek philosopher, disciple of Socrates. His views influenced Christian theology from 5th to 14th centuries.

Priestley, Joseph:
Late 18th century English chemist, and enthusiast for French Revolution.

Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph:
French socialist writer of 1840s to 1860s, opposed political action by workers, believed society should be run as ‘mutual’ association of independent small producers.

Ptolemy (Claudius):
Mathematician and astronomer whose picture of universe with sun and planets going round earth dominated throughout European Middle Ages.

Radek, Karl:
Polish revolutionary, joined Bolsheviks in 1917, leading figure in early Communist International, supported Trotsky 1924-28, then went over to Stalin. Died in slave labour camp after Moscow trials.

Robespierre, Maximilien:
Lawyer from Arras in northern France who led most revolutionary, ‘Jacobin’, section of bourgeoisie in 1789-94, when executed.

Roosevelt, Franklin D:
US president 1933-45.

Rothermere, Lord:
Brother of Alfred Harmsworth (Lord Northcliffe), ran press empire of his own, minister in British First World War government. Supported fascist Blackshirts in mid-1930s.

Roux, Jacques:
Ex-priest who played key role in agitating among
sans culottes
of Paris in Great French Revolution. Committed suicide rather than face execution February 1794.

Russell, Bertrand:
Major British empiricist philosopher and polemicist from 1890s to 1960. Reformist socialist, opposed First World War and Vietnam War.