Been in the Storm So Long (141 page)

87.
New York Times
, Dec. 8, 1861; WPA,
Negro in Virginia
, 263.

88.
Forten,
Journal
, 133; Virginia C. Green to A. W. Preston, Oct. 24, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. See also Jonathan J. Wright to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Feb. 5, 1866, T. G. Steward to John A. Rockwell, Nov. 6, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

89.
Francis L. Cardozo to Rev. George Whipple, July 5, 1865, Cardozo to Rev. M. E. Strieby, Aug. 13, 1866, Cardozo to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Dec. 2, 1865, Jan. 13 [1866]. On the progress of his school, see Cardozo to Hunt, Oct. 10, Nov. 7, 22, Dec. 2, 15, 1865, Cardozo to Whipple, Oct. 21, 1865, Jan. 27, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

90.
Francis L. Cardozo, School Report for November 1867, Sarah W. Stansbury to E. P. Smith, Jan. 30, 1867, Cardozo to E. P. Smith, Dec. 24, 1866, Jane A. Van Allen to E. P. Smith, Feb. 16, 1867, Cardozo to E. P. Smith, April 9, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives. For visits to Cardozo’s school, see Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 217–18; Macrae,
Americans at Home
, 266–69; Cardozo to Rev. Samuel Hunt, March 10, 1866, Jonathan J. Wright to Hunt, Dec. 4, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

91.
Francis L. Cardozo to Rev. George Whipple, Oct. 21, 1865, Cardozo to E. P. Smith, Nov. 4, 1867, American Missionary Assn. Archives. On his preparations for the constitutional convention and the prospect of his candidacy for secretary of state of South Carolina, see Cardozo to E. P. Smith, Dec. 7, 1867, Jan. 2, March 9, 1868, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

92.
C. W. Buckley to Rev. George Whipple, March 13, 1866, G. L. Eberhart to Ira Pettibone, Oct. 19, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives. On the preference for black teachers in the “interior,” see J. W. Alvord,
Seventh Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, January 1, 1869
, 24.

93.
S. S. Ashley to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Jan. 22, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives. On the preference for white teachers, see also
American Freedman
, I (Oct. 1866), 106 (W. D. Newsome); Reid,
After the War
, 511. On the objections of free-born “colored people” to “a teacher born in bondage, unless of a very light complexion,” see J. W. Alvord,
Ninth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, January 1, 1870
, 15–16.

94.
Blanche Harris to Rev. George Whipple, Jan. 23, March 10, 1866, John P. Bardwell to Whipple, March 20, April 2, 1866, Rev. Palmer Litts to Whipple, April 27, 1866, Addie Warren to John P. Bardwell, May 6, 1866, John P. Bardwell to Rev. Samuel Hunt, June 22, 1866, Mary Still to Hunt, Feb. 19, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

95.
Christian Recorder
, Sept. 8, 1866 (T.W.C.); Blanche Harris to Rev. George Whipple, March 10, 1866, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

96.
Christian Recorder
, Dec. 2, 1865 (“Editorial Correspondence”).

97.
Washington,
Up from Slavery
, 28; John P. Bardwell to Rev. M. E. Strieby, Nov. 20, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives;
New York Times
, June 22, 1866, Aug. 21, 863. On black support of schools and teachers and independent educational efforts, see also, e.g., B. F. Randolph to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, March 15, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; De Forest,
Union Officer in the Reconstruction
, 118–21; Trowbridge,
The South
, 228, 251; 39 Cong., 1 Sess.,
Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction
, Part II, 251, 254, 256, 257; Blassingame (ed.),
Slave Testimony
, 386;
Loyal Georgian
, July 6, 1867;
New York Times
, Sept. 2, 10, 1865.

98.
Christian Recorder
, Jan. 21, 1865 (J. Lynch); W. T. Richardson to Rev. M. E. Strieby, Jan. 2, 1865, Richardson to Rev. George Whipple, Jan. 10, 1865, Rev. S. W. Magill to Whipple, Feb. 3, 6, 26, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

99.
Christian Recorder
, Aug. 27, 1864 (“Junius”).

100.
T. K. Noble to Rev. George Whipple, Sept. 29, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.

1.
A. H. Haines to President Andrew Johnson, Oct. 19, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.

2.
Christian Recorder
, Jan. 20, 1866.

3.
Discussion of the Freedmen’s Convention of North Carolina and the political activity among blacks which preceded and immediately followed it is based on
Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina: Official Proceedings
[Raleigh, 1865];
Christian Recorder
, Oct. 28, 1865 (same as official proceedings, except for additional speech by James Harris; also includes a report of a mass meeting in Edgecombe Co.);
National Freedman
, I (Oct. 15, 1865), 289, 301–02;
New York Times
, May 19 and Sept. 17 (New Bern), Oct. 7 and 9 (state conv), 1865;
New York Tribune
, Oct. 7 (state conv.), 24 (Edgecombe Co.), 1865;
New Orleans Tribune
, Sept. 24 (Robeson Co., N.C.), Oct. 19 (Wilmington), 1865; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 148–54, 156, 175–77; Andrews,
The South since the War
, 119–31, 162, 188; Evans,
Ballots and Fence Rails
, 87–93, 110–12; Perrin Busbee to Benjamin S. Hedrick, Jan. 8, 1866, B. S. Hedrick Papers, Duke Univ.; James H. Harris Papers, 1850 to 1873, State Dept. of Archives and History, Raleigh, N.C;
Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the National Equal Rights League, Held in Cleveland, Ohio, October 19, 20, and 21, 1865
(Philadelphia, 1865), 4.

4.
New York Times
, Oct. 11, 1866;
New Orleans Tribune
, Oct. 27, 1866.

5.
Christian Recorder
, Oct. 28, 1865; Rogers,
Thomas County, 1865–1900
, 8, 13.

6.
Andrews,
The South since the War
, 131, 188; Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 149, 175;
New York Times
, Oct. 24, 1865, Nov. 19, 1866;
Proceedings of the Convention of the Colored People of Virginia, Held in the City of Alexandria, Aug. 2, 3, 4, 5, 1865
(Alexandria, 1865), 4, 11.

7.
New Orleans Tribune
, Jan. 15, 1865.

8.
Christian Recorder
, April 21, 1866.

9.
See, e.g.,
Loyal Georgian
, July 6, 1867 (H. M. Turner);
Christian Recorder
, Sept. 30 (R. H. Cain), Nov. 25 (T. G. Campbell), 1865, April 21, 1866 (R. H. Cain), May 4 (J. J. Wright), 11 (H. M. Turner), Aug. 17 (H. M. Turner), Oct. 12 (M. R. Delany), 1867, Feb. 1, 1868 (H. M. Turner), June 26, 1869 (M. R. Delany); Cardozo to Rev. George Whipple, Oct. 21, 1865, Cardozo to Rev. E. P. Smith, Nov. 4, 1867, March 9, 1868, Wright to Rev. Samuel Hunt, Dec. 4, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives; T. G. Campbell,
Sufferings of the Rev. T. G. Campbell and His Family, in Georgia
(Washington, D.C., 1877); H. M. Turner, “Speech on the Eligibility of Colored Members to Seats in the Georgia Legislature … September 3d, 1868,” in George A. Singleton,
The Romance of African Methodism: A Study of the African Methodist Episcopal Church
(New York, 1952), Appendix B, 1–16.

10.
Williamson,
After Slavery
, 26–30; Higginson,
Army Life in a Black Regiment
, 57–58.

11.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 150; Andrews,
The South since the War
, 123, 131.

12.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 150–51;
New Orleans Tribune
, May 7, 1867 (Letter from Mobile); “Proceedings of the State Convention of the Colored People of Tennessee,” in
Colored Tennessean
, Aug. 12, 1865.

13.
Convention of the Colored People of Virginia
(Aug. 1865), 10;
New Orleans Tribune
, March 15, 1865. For Horace Greeley’s message, see
Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina
(Sept.-Oct. 1865), 9–11.

14.
Proceedings of the Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia, Assembled at Augusta, January 10th, 1866
(Augusta, 1866), 21, 23;
New Orleans Tribune
, July 18, 1865 (Letter from Mobile).

15.
New Orleans Tribune
, Jan. 20, Feb. 1, 1865. Similar editorial advice may be found in the issues of March 7, April 25, 1865, May 1, 19, June 12, 1867.

16.
Dennett,
The South As It Is
, 152–53; J. W. Alvord,
Seventh Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen, January 1, 1869
, 50.

17.
On free-born “colored society,” see Berlin,
Slaves Without Masters;
Marina Wikramanayake,
A World in Shadow: The Free Black in Antebellum South Carolina
(Columbia, S.C., 1973); Constance McLaughlin Green,
The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation’s Capital
(Princeton, 1967); and Blassingame,
Black New Orleans
.

18.
Bruce,
The New Man
, 79; W. L. Tilden, Washington, D.C., Feb. 12, 1866 (Ms. report), American Missionary Assn. Archives; John E. Bruce,
Washington’s Colored Society
(n.p., 1877; typewritten copy in Schomburg Collection, New York Public Library).

19.
Williamson,
After Slavery
, 314. For an examination of “colored society,” as “moulded by outside forces,” see Rev. T. G. Steward, “Colored Society,”
Christian Recorder
, Nov. 9, 16, 23, Dec. 14, 28, 1876, Jan. 11, 18, 1877.

20.
New Orleans Tribune
, Feb. 19, 1869. For similar sentiments, see the issues of Dec. 6, 29, 1864, March 28, June 30, 1865. But for the persistence of divisiveness, see, e.g.,
Semi-Weekly Louisianian
, May 25, 1871.

21.
Christian Recorder
, April 21, 1866.

22.
New York Tribune
, Nov. 29, 1865 (Convention of Colored People, South Carolina).

23.
Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia
(Jan. 1866), 19. See also
Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina
(Sept.-Oct. 1865), 14.

24.
Colored American
, Jan. 6, 1866. See also
New York Tribune
, Nov. 29, 1865 (Convention of Colored People, South Carolina);
Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia
(Jan. 1866), 18.

25.
Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina
(Sept.-Oct. 1865), 13;
Convention of the Colored People of Virginia
(Aug. 1865), 9.

26.
National Freedman
, I (Dec. 15, 1865), 364 (Convention of Colored People, Alabama);
New Orleans Tribune
, Sept. 24, 1865 (Address of Freedmen of Robeson Co., N.C);
Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia
(Jan. 1866), 19. More than a hundred years later, at the peak of the civil rights struggle in the South, Malcolm X would make a similar pronouncement on the limits of black forbearance: “It’s simply not possible to love a man whose chief purpose in life is to humiliate you, and still be what is considered a normal human being.”

27.
Colored Tennessean
, March 31, 1866 (Kentucky Colored People’s Convention);
New York Tribune
, Nov. 29, 1865 (Convention of Colored People, South Carolina);
Convention of the Colored People of Virginia
(Aug. 1865), 9, 21;
Proceedings of the Convention of Colored Citizens of the State of Arkansas Held in Little Rock … Nov. 30, Dec. 1 and 2
(Helena, 1866), 3–4.

28.
Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina
(Sept.-Oct. 1865), 13;
Colored Tennessean
, March 31, 1866 (Kentucky Colored People’s Convention);
Convention of the Colored People of Virginia
(Aug. 1865), 9, 10, 12.

29.
Montgomery, “Alabama Freedmen: Some Reconstruction Documents,” 248;
New York Times
, Nov. 12, 1865 (Selma, Ala.).

30.
New York Times
, June 20, 1866;
American Freedman
, I (Sept. 1866), 87 (Georgia Equal Rights Assn. meeting);
Proceedings of the Convention of the Equal Rights and Educational Association of Georgia, Assembled at Macon, October 29th, 1866
(Augusta, 1866), 17; S. W. Laidler to Thaddeus Stevens, May 7, 1866, Stevens Papers, Library of Congress (New Bern freedmen’s meeting). Praise for the work of the Freedmen’s Bureau was voiced by conventions in Alabama (1865), Georgia (1866), Kentucky (1867), North Carolina (1865), South Carolina (1865), Tennessee (1865), and Virginia (1865).

31.
[State Exec. Comm. for Equal Political Rights in Missouri],
An Address by the Colored People of Missouri to the Friends of Equal Rights
(St. Louis, 1865), 3;
South Carolina Leader
, Nov. 25, 1865 (Convention of Colored People); “Our Wrongs and Rights,”
Convention of the Colored People of Virginia
(Aug. 1865), 12–13.

32.
American Freedman
, I (Sept. 1866), 87–88 (Georgia Equal Rights Assn. meeting);
Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia
(Jan. 1866), 16–17;
Proceedings of the State
Convention of Colored Men, Held at Lexington, Kentucky, in the A.M.E. Church, November 26th, 27th, and 28th, 1867
(Frankfort, 1867), 5–6;
Convention of the Colored People of Virginia
(Aug. 1865), 12.

33.
Colored Tennessean
, Aug. 12, 1865 (Convention of the Colored People);
New York Tribune
, Nov. 29, 1865 (Convention of Colored People, South Carolina).

34.
Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia
(Jan. 1866), 30. The address drawn up by the freedmen of North Carolina to the Constitutional Convention did complain of “unscrupulous and avaricious employers” who expelled blacks from the plantations and refused adequate compensation (
Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina
, Sept.-Oct. 1865), and Tennessee and Georgia blacks demanded “just compensation” for labor performed (
Colored Tennessean
, Aug. 12, 1865;
Freedmen’s Convention of Georgia
, Jan. 1866, 29).