Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness (47 page)

et al.
(2007)
showed that depressed patients who responded to CBT showed greater gains in decentering than those successfully treated with medication.

In addition, high levels of decentering post-treatment were associated with

lower rates of relapse during an 18-month follow-up period.

Fresco, Moore, et al. (2007) note that the EQ was not designed to be a

measure of mindfulness. However, definitions of decentering are very similar

to descriptions of mindfulness summarized earlier. Empirical investigations

of relations between the EQ and measures of mindfulness have not yet been

conducted.

Performance-Based Tasks

Self-report methods can be subject to demand characteristics or response

biases, and some aspects of mindfulness may be difficult for individuals to

report on, especially if they have no meditation experience. Thus, it is impor-

tant to develop additional tools for assessing mindfulness that do not rely

on self-report methods. Unfortunately, very little research has examined the

assessment of mindfulness by non-self-report methods.
Bishop et al. (2004)

Chapter 9 Assessment of Mindfulness

163

suggested several laboratory- or computer-based tasks for which perfor-

mance may reflect aspects of the tendency or ability to be mindful. For exam-

ple, as the practice of mindfulness should cultivate both sustained attention

and flexibility of attention, more mindful individuals should score higher on

established tests of vigilance and attention switching. In addition, mindful-

ness encourages observation of stimuli without secondary elaborative pro-

cessing. Therefore, more mindful individuals should perform better on tasks

that require inhibition of semantic processing, such as the emotional Stroop

task
(Williams, Mathews, & MacLeod, 1996).
The Implicit Associations Test

(Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998)
could provide a method for assessing the tendency to associate negative emotions with avoidance rather than

approach. Because the practice of mindfulness encourages acceptance and

allowing of negative emotion, this tendency should be lower in more mindful

individuals.

Some authors have suggested that responses to stressful or unpleas-

ant experiences in a laboratory setting might reflect levels of mindful-

ness or acceptance. Several studies have shown that participants who

are instructed to adopt a mindful perspective while experiencing short-

term, laboratory-induced pain, negative mood, or panic-like symptoms show

quicker recovery or greater willingness to repeat the experience than those

given suppression, distraction, or rumination instructions (e.g., Broder-

ick,
2005;
Levitt, Brown, Orsillo, & Barlow, 2004).
Zettle and colleagues found that participants who scored higher on experiential avoidance (as

measured by the AAQ) also showed lower pain tolerance
(Zettle et al.,

2005)
and were more distressed by unpleasant sensations (Zettle, Peterson, Hocker, & Provines,
2007).
However, whether such tasks provide adequate indices of individuals’ levels of mindfulness or acceptance requires more

investigation.

Conclusion

No single method of psychological assessment can provide a complete

picture of the characteristic it is designed to measure. Self-report question-

naires, structured interviews, performance-based measures, and other meth-

ods all have strengths and weaknesses, and each may yield useful data not

provided by the others
(Meyer et al., 2001).
Mindfulness, as noted ear-

lier, appears to be unusually difficult to define and conceptualize, perhaps

because it is associated with the “mysterious territory” of consciousness

(Brown & Ryan, 2004,
p. 242, see also Chapter 4 of this volume) or because mindful acceptance is an atypical way of meeting adversity in our culture

(Santorelli, 1999).
Mindfulness-based interventions address these difficulties through extensive use of experiential methods and by placing less emphasis on intellectual learning
(Hayes et al., 1999;
Segal et al., 2002).
Given the difficulty of translating mindfulness and acceptance into the concrete

operational definitions required by scientific methods of assessment and the

importance of understanding of how mindfulness-based treatments work,

it is essential that we continue to strive for the most productive combina-

tion of critical thinking and open mindedness about how to assess these

constructs.

164

Ruth A. Baer, Erin Walsh, and Emily L. B. Lykins

Appendix: Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire

Please rate each of the following statements using the scale provided.

Write the number in the blank that best describes your own opinion

of what is generally true for you
.

1

2

3

4

5

never or very

rarely

sometimes

often

very often or

rarely true

true

true

true

always true

1. When I’m walking, I deliberately notice the sensations of my body

moving.

2. I’m good at finding words to describe my feelings.

3. I criticize myself for having irrational or inappropriate emotions.

4. I perceive my feelings and emotions without having to react

to them.

5. When I do things, my mind wanders off and I’m easily distracted.

6. When I take a shower or bath, I stay alert to the sensations of water

on my body.

7. I can easily put my beliefs, opinions, and expectations into words.

8. I don’t pay attention to what I’m doing because I’m daydreaming,

worrying, or otherwise distracted.

9. I watch my feelings without getting lost in them.

10. I tell myself I shouldn’t be feeling the way I’m feeling.

11. I notice how foods and drinks affect my thoughts, bodily sensations,

and emotions.

12. It’s hard for me to find the words to describe what I’m thinking.

13. I am easily distracted.

14. I believe some of my thoughts are abnormal or bad and I shouldn’t

think that way.

15. I pay attention to sensations, such as the wind in my hair or sun on

my face.

16. I have trouble thinking of the right words to express how I feel

about things

17. I make judgments about whether my thoughts are good or bad.

18. I find it difficult to stay focused on what’s happening in the present.

19. When I have distressing thoughts or images, I “step back” and am

aware of the thought or image without getting taken over by it.

20. I pay attention to sounds, such as clocks ticking, birds chirping, or

cars passing.

21. In difficult situations, I can pause without immediately reacting.

22. When I have a sensation in my body, it’s difficult for me to describe

it because I can’t find the right words.

23. It seems I am “running on automatic” without much awareness of

what I’m doing.

24. When I have distressing thoughts or images, I feel calm soon after.

25. I tell myself that I shouldn’t be thinking the way I’m thinking.

26. I notice the smells and aromas of things.

Chapter 9 Assessment of Mindfulness

165

27. Even when I’m feeling terribly upset, I can find a way to put it

into words.

28. I rush through activities without being really attentive to them.

29. When I have distressing thoughts or images I am able just to notice

them without reacting.

30. I think some of my emotions are bad or inappropriate and I

shouldn’t feel them.

31. I notice visual elements in art or nature, such as colors, shapes,

textures, or patterns of light and shadow.

32. My natural tendency is to put my experiences into words.

33. When I have distressing thoughts or images, I just notice them and

let them go.

34. I do jobs or tasks automatically without being aware of what

I’m doing.

35. When I have distressing thoughts or images, I judge myself as good

or bad, depending on what the thought/image is about.

36. I pay attention to how my emotions affect my thoughts and behav-

ior.

37. I can usually describe how I feel at the moment in considerable

detail.

38. I find myself doing things without paying attention.

39. I disapprove of myself when I have irrational ideas.

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