Hinduism: A Short History (25 page)

When Muslim power was at its height in northern India, and Brahminism perhaps at its lowest ebb, popular singers of God’s love arose whose vernacular compositions moved the large masses to fervent expressions of
bhakti
to their traditional deities. The greatest among them is probably Tulsīdās (Tulasīdāsa) (1511–1637), author of the celebrated
Rāmcaritmānas
, a vernacular (Avadhī, Eastern Hindī) recreation of the
Rāmāyaṇa
, which has become the most popular religious classic in northern India. Tulsīdās also composed numerous hymns which are widely used in religious services.
¹⁵²

Another famous name in northern India is Sūrdās (1479–1584), the blind poet of Kṛṣṇa’s and Rādhā’s love, who reportedly deeply moved the Muslim Emperor Akbar through his singing. The collection of his songs is known as
Sūrsāgar
, “Sur’s Ocean” of devotion.
¹⁵³
He exhorts his listeners to utilize their time of life well in the service of Viṣṇu: “Someone who has received a human body and does not worship God is just a morsel for the god of death. Sūrdās says: Without doing
bhajan
you have wasted your life.”
¹⁵⁴

The poet-mystics usually place very little importance on the performance of Brahmanic ritual; they even ridicule many customs of the Brahmins. They do not attach much importance to pilgrimages, to rules of conduct fixed for the
varṇas
and
āśramas
, to ritual purity, and the like, but emphasize the importance of moral qualities and spiritual enlightenment.
¹⁵⁵
For them the most important means of God realization is not a material sacrament or a ritualistic concept of duty, but the living Word. This tendency has continued to our own time. Contemporary Vaiṣṇava teachers such as Swāmi Rāma Tīrtha emphasize the necessity of cultivating moral virtues and purity of heart, selfless service and spirituality, and they point out the instrumentality of the Word in achieving life’s ultimate aim.

VAIṢṆAVISM TODAY

As the largest branch of mainstream Hinduism, Vaiṣṇavism in its great variety of expressions is very much alive today. In hundreds of thousands of Viṣṇu temples the daily ritual attracts millions of worshipers and many of the largest and most popular places of pilgrimage are dedicated to Viṣṇu. The major Vaiṣṇava
saṃpradāyas
are flourishing, guided by theologically and administratively capable leaders, many of whom exercise great influence on the lives and thoughts of a great number of ordinary people. They are usually less well known, especially in the West, than the jet-set gurus, who concoct their own brand of Hinduism.

Part of the Vaiṣṇava ethos is fidelity to tradition and faithful following of rules of life and ritual. Since the major Vaiṣṇava
saṃpradāyas
have been in existence for many centuries and regularly meet at the Kumbhamelās, which take place every three years (as well at the yearly Ardhamelās in Prāyāg), they are stricty regulated and their members have to conform to the norms set down for each. This may be unspectacular but it makes for perseverance and character formation. Most of present-day Vaiṣṇava worship and thought is medieval, not “modern” – but it has charm and strength and sustains spiritually and socially hundreds of millions of Hindus.

Vaiṣṇavism has also lately been discovered by Westerners. While they were first attracted by Advaita Vedānta, especially in its reinterpretation by Swami Vivekananda around the turn of the century, the most successful Hindu mission to the West in the late twentieth century was the Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava movement represented by Swāmi Bhaktivedānta, which spread rapidly all over the globe after its establishment in the United States in the late sixties. Mention should also be made of Ronald Nixon, an Englishman, who became known in India as Śrī Krishnaprem Vairāgi; he was not only accepted as a true convert but also as a teacher of Vaiṣṇavism to Hindus.
¹⁵⁶

Western scholarship, too, increasingly turns toward Vaiṣṇavism, after having for a long time focused on Śaṅkara and his school. Part of this scholarship is generated by the members of ISKCON who are systematically exploring the rich scholarly heritage of Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism. In numerous references in this chapter recent Western scholarship has been indicated: in the past few decades many translations of Vaiṣṇava texts have appeared, as well as numerous monographs on Vaiṣṇava history and theology, and several conferences were held dealing with
bhakti
movements.
¹⁵⁷

While much of that interest has been generated by the inherent loveliness and charm of Vaiṣṇava poetry and the depth and sophistication of Vaiṣṇava theology, some of it also has to do with the prominent use of Vaiṣṇava symbols such as Rāma and Kṛṣṇa, Rāmarājya and Dharmakṣetra, by Hindu political parties whose activities arouse worldwide attention. While one need not necessarily applaud this usage, it certainly serves as a further indication of the wide and deep fascination that symbols and ideas associated with age-old Vaiṣṇavism still evoke among millions of Hindus.

NOTES

1.

   S. K. Chatterji, in

, vol. I, p. 165. L. Renou,

, vol. I, p. 323 envisages a non-Āryan origin of the name of Viṣṇu. He mentions among the etymologies suggested by different scholars

, “crossing the heights,” and

“active,” and notes the epithet

as indicating a possible phallic origin. Cf. A. Daniélou,

, p. 149.

2.

   Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya,

, p. 4.

3.

I, 154–156; VII,

and 100.

4.

   Cf.

II, 64.

5.

III, 2, 9, 7;

I, 2, 5; XIV, 1, 1.

6.

   D. C. Sircar and V M. Apte in

, vol. II, p. 432: “The historical character of Vāsudeva, as the son of Vasudeva of the Vṛṣṇi (known also as Sātvata) set of the famous Yādava or Yadu clan need not be doubted.” R. G. Bhandarkar,

, pp. 35–38. A. D. Pusalker,

, pp. 49–81. D. C. Sircar, “Early History,” in

, vol. IV, pp. 108–145.

7.

   Sircar and Apte,

, p. 437. In

, Sabhāparvan, chap. 37. Sisupala, scolding Bhīṣma for worshiping Kṛṣṇa, says of the latter: “This wretch born in the race of Vṛṣṇis, unrighteously slew of old the illustrious King of Jarasandha.”

8.

   Sircar and Apte, “Early History”,

, vol. II, pp. 450ff.

9.

   Ibid.

10.

   Ramdas Lamb, “The Magh Mela: Prāyāg’s ‘other’ Holy Festival,”

(Spring 1999), pp. 195–205

11.

   The hymns addressed to Viṣṇu are

I, 154; 155; 156; VII,

, 100.

12.

   Cf. A. A. Macdonell,

, Strasbourg, 1897.

13.

   In

I, 22, 18 Viṣṇu is called the guardian

, “he whom none deceives.” The great importance of his “three steps” are always emphasized. As friend of Indra he assists in killing Vṛtra.

14.

VII,

Cf.

XIX, 6.

15.

I, 154, 5f.; I, 22, 20f.

16.

   Ibid., I, 155, 4B.

17.

I, 1, 2, 13; I, 9, 3, 9; III, 6, 3, 3.

18.

II,

.

19.

   Ibid.,

.

20.

III, 9

21.

X, 184, 1; VII, 36. 9;

III, 23; V, 25;

I, 4;

VI, 2;

II, 6.

22.

X, 121.

23.

   A comprehensive discussion of “Viṣṇu in the Veda” is offered by R. N. Dandekar in

, pp. 68–90.

24.

I, 2, 5, 1–10;

III, 2, 9, 7.

25.

I.e., v. 11.

26.

   Ibid., Ill, 1, 3, 1.

27.

   Ibid., V, 11.

28.

   Ibid., I, 2, 1ff.

29.

   Ibid., I, 4, 1ff.

30.

III, 9.

31.

IV VI, 23, 35, 38; VII, 7.

32.

I, 4, 7;

II, 6 and parallels.

33.

I, 4, 5.

34.

   A. D. Pusalkar, “The Rāmāyaṇa, Its History and Character,” in

, vol. II, p. 21. C. Bulcke,

. N. Chandrasekhara Ayer,

, vol. I, p. 37 holds that Vālmīki’s intention was from the beginning to portray Rāma as a divine being.

35.

   Swami Nishreyasananda, “The Culture of the Rāmayāṇa,” in

, vol. II, p. 49.

36.

   The following are considered

(dates given according to R. C. Hazra,

, chaps. 16 and 17).

1.

belongs to the Pāñcarātra school and is “purely Vaiṣṇava from beginning to end” (c.275–325 C.E.).

2.

originally Pāñcarātra (c.275–325 C.E.).

3.

“the most popular among the extant Purāṇas ... expounding exclusively Bhāgavata Vaiṣṇavism” (c.530–550 C.E.).

4.

“originally a Pāñcarātra work with a considerable Śākta element” (c.500–650 C.E.).

5.

“belongs principally to the Vaiṣṇavas” (the nucleus of it composed c.600–750, but many later additions).

6.

“originally Vaiṣṇava – probably Pāñcarātra” (c.900

7.

“mainly a Vaiṣṇava work ... written mainly by the Pāñcarātras and Bhāgavatas in different ages” (c.800–1100 C.E.).

8.

and

“spurious Vaiṣṇava works” (c.900–1000

10.

partly Vaiṣṇava (c.900–1200 C.E.).

11.

(c.800 C.E. with additions till 1600 C.E.).

Among the more important

the following may be mentioned:

1.

“a voluminous work dealing mainly with Vaiṣṇava philosophy and rituals”

.third century C.E.) “definite intention to spread the Vaiṣṇava faith against the heresies, especially Buddhism.”

2.

“the most important and interesting in the whole range of

literature” (c.400–500 C.E.).

3.

“a work of the Pāñcarātras with Bhāgavata inclination,” “one of the oldest of the extant Upa-Purāṇas.”

4.

“preeminently a work on devotion to Viṣṇu” (750–900 C.E.).

5.

(C.900C.E.).

37.

. Arghābhiharaṇaparvan addition after Chapter 35, 29 (Critical Ed.). Cf. Critical Ed., vol. 2, Appendix I, pp. 386ff. The Vāmana episode: vv. 331ff.

38.

I, 28.

39.

III, 1, 42

40.

VIII, 17: some details of Viṣṇu’s incarnation.

41.

VIII, 20, 34/4.

42.

   Cf.

3ff.

43.

   For example, Hiraṇyakaśipu is reborn as Rāvaṇa; Kṛṣṇa liberates Pūtanā by killing her