Hinduism: A Short History (26 page)

X, 6, 35).

44.

   Anuśānaparvan, chap. 126 (Critical Ed. XIII, Appendix I, 14).

45.

   Sabhāparvan, chap. 35;

I, 15; Gajendra-mokṣa-dana:

85.

46.

XII, 3, 4. Also the

knows a

Nārāyaṇa, who in the company of Nārā does

in the Himālayas.

47.

   L. B. Keny, “The Origin of Nārāyaṇa,”

, XXIII (1942), pp. 250–256.

48.

, Vanaparvan, 187, 3 (Critical Ed.).

49.

   R. G. Bhandarkar,

, p. 30, referring to

Śāntiparvan, 341 (Critical Ed., 328).

50.

   Ibid. Cf.

I, 10. According to

, Karṇaparvan, chap. 34, Nārāyaṇa is issuing out of the shaft of Śiva’s weapon.

51.

, Śāntiparvan, chap. 321ff (Critical Ed.).

52.

   Cf. Bhandarkar,

, p. 32. See also: B. N. Seal,

. Private Publication. Calcutta, 1899.

53.

   Śāntiparvan, chap. 326.

54.

   From the root

. to come down, to descend (for the purpose of salvation).

55.

IV, 7f.;

III, 242ff.

56.

, Śāntiparvan, chap. 335. H. Glasenapp,

shows (plate 9) a figure of “Damon Hayagriva – Schutzgott der Pferde”.

57.

   Hopkins,

, p. 97.

58.

III, 24ff.

59.

   Ibid., V, 3ff.

60.

V, 4

61.

   Ibid., VI, 8.

62.

   Kṛṣṇa is the central figure in the most authoritative scriptures of the Vaiṣṇavas: The

, etc. Also

I,

, 25. Kṛṣṇa is mentioned several times in the

, but it is highly doubtful whether he is in any way associated with the Kṛṣṇa-Vāsudeva of the

, 74: a Kṛṣṇa invites the gods with songs to drink Soma.

VIII, 85: a Kṛṣṇa-

is mentioned whom Indra defeated. Sāyana apparently identifies him with the Purāṇic Kṛṣṇa.

, 116: again a Kṛṣṇa-singer is mentioned.

63.

   The usual definition of an

is

, a “sham man,” while Kṛṣṇa is

, the apparition of the Lord himself in His proper form.

64.

   Cf. A. D. Pusalker,

, chap. V, “Historicity of Kṛṣṇa,” with copious notes and references to literature.

65.

   Cf. D. C. Sircar,

, pp. 115ff

, vol. I, 302: Deification of Kṛṣṇa before second century B.C.E.).

66.

   G. Bhandarkar,

, pp. 35ff. M. M. Chandham, “The Indian Cowherd-god,” in

, 28 (December 1942).

67.

   The chief sources for this are the

and the

, the former being not earlier than third century C.E. – the latter sixth to tenth century C.E. M. S. Randhawa,

, (Delhi, 1960), Introduction, p. 22: According to M. R. Iyengar “the Bhāgavata was the ripe fruit of the Āḷvār-Vaiṣṇava renaissance and bears the indelible impress of the living mystical experience of the Āḷvārs ...” According to South Indian tradition the

was composed in the city of Kāñcī, an ancient seat of Sanskrit learning in the country of the Pāndyas in Tamil Nādu. Thus the

is a synthesis of Āryan and Dravidian traditions and ideas and provided a link which forged the unity of Hindu India.

68.

   Cf. J. Gonda,

, vol. II, pp. 150ff.

69.

   Kṛṣṇa is worshiped as

, the charmer of the God of Love, outdoing him. S. K. Chaterji,

, vol. I, p. 165: “Kṛṣṇa (in Prākṛt Kaṇha, in Tamil Kannan) is a demon opposed to Indra in the

according to P. T. Śrīnivasa Aiyangar, he represents, partially at least, a Dravidian God of Youth, who has later been identified with Viṣṇu as an incarnation of his.”

70.

   A. D. Pusalker,

, p. 56: “Kṛṣṇa ... was originally a real man as evidenced by the pre-epic literature and the earliest parts of the Mahābhārata itself.” Rādhākamal Mukherji,

, p. 67: Kṛṣṇa the statesman and builder of united India: “Vāsudeva Kṛṣṇa is not a legendary but a historical figure who flourished about 1000 B.C. and was one of India’s greatest warriors and sages ... Vyāsa, alias Kṛṣṇa-Dvaipāyana, as the author of the core of the

and

justly deserves honour.” The great Bengali writer Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s

is a “biography” of Kṛṣṇa as founder of India’s principal religion.

71.

   For example, the apparition of Kṛṣṇa in the

form

XII) which is a cosmic, a-historical element; repeatedly mentioned in

.

72.

   Cf. J. Gonda,

, vol. II, pp. 150ff. In some Purāṇas Rādhā appears as a goddess. In poetry she is mentioned from the eighth century onwards. Rādhā is identified with Laksmī by Jayadeva in

(twelfth century C.E.). Vidyāpati composed poems in Maithilī about the love of Kṛṣṇa and Rādhā (fifteenth century), Chandī Dās wrote

(c.1420 C.E.). The Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavas consider the

as literary sequel to the

. Mīrābāī wrote a commentary on

. Vallabha, Sūr Dās, Bihāri Lāl are poets of Kṛṣṇa’s love for Rādhā. The last great poet of Kṛṣṇa-Rādhā love was Guru Gobind Singh (1675–1758). He wrote

(in Brajbhāṣa).

73.

   Cif. V. Ranghacharya, “Historical Evolution of Śrī-Vaiṣṇavas in South India,” in

, vol. IV, pp. 163ff. See also Sanjukta Gupta “The Pāñcharātra Attitude to Mantra,” in H. P. Alper (ed.),

, Albany: SUNY Press, 1987, pp. 224–248.

74.

III, 24–33.

75.

i, 2,.

76.

   Lokācārya,

, p. 138.

77.

   Rāmānuja,

, I, 1 explains that he is going to give the views of these former teachers who had abridged the lengthy

of Bodhāyana.

78.

   About the Āḷvārs: cf. V. Ranghacharya, “Historical Evolution of Śrīvaiṣṇavism in South India,” in

, vol. IV, pp. 166ff. A. Hooper,

. S. N. Dasgupta,

, vol. Ill, pp. 63ff. K. V Varadachari,

.

79.

.

80.

   V. Ranghacharya,

, vol. IV, pp. 174ff.

S. N. Dasgupta,

, vol. II, pp. lOOff. J. Sinha,

, vol. II, pp. 653ff. See J. B. Carman,

. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1974. J. Lipner,

, SUNY Press, 1986.

81.

   According to a legend Yāmunācārya kept in his death three fingers bent. Rāmānuja inferred that he had died with three unfulfilled wishes which he was going to redeem: to give to the Vaiṣṇavas a

, to perpetuate the memory of Parāśara (the author of the

, and to spread the glory of Nammālvār.

82.

VII, 18.

83.

   These form the central theme of J. B. Carman’s masterly study

. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1974.

84.

VII, 18.

85.

II, 3, 41.

86.

   Ibid.

87.

II, 7.

88.

.

89.

, No. 217 (referring to

VII, 70).

90.

I, 1, 4.

91.

   Rāmānuja,

I, 1, 1.

92.

.

93.

IV, 4, 5.

94.

   The development and the substance of the controversy is analyzed in P. Y Mumme,

. Madras: New Era Publications, 1988.

95.

   In matrimonials the Vadagalai or Tengalai affiliation of a bride or bridegroom is always mentioned.

96.

   B. N. K. Sharma,

, 2 vols.

, Bombay 1962; S. Siauve,

, Pondicherry, 1968.

97.

   Hari is one of the most frequently used names of Viṣṇu; Hara is a name of Śiva.

98.

   B. N. K. Sharma,

, pp. 218ff.

99.

1 (translation: B. N. K. Sarma), p. 89.

100.

I, 86.

101.

   B. N. K. Sharma,

, p. 140. For Madhva the instruction and guidance by a competent

and his

are absolutely necessary for

and

to bear fruit. The grace of the

is more powerful for release than one’s own effort. He proves his view by commenting on

III, 3, 44–46.

102.

IV, 4, 6: “The released have their own separate body consisting of simple intelligence and by that they enjoy their blessings.”

103.

III, 3.

104.

IV, 4, 19;

III, 3.

105.

   Ibid., IV, 4, 5.

106.

   2 vols., B. N. K. Sharma,

, Bombay: Booksellers Publishing Co., 1960–61

107.

   Cf. Roma Bose,

, 3 vols.; R. G. Bhandarkar,