Hinduism: A Short History (46 page)

, pp. 234ff., calls Devī worship “worship of the Terrible for its own sake.” He thinks that Devī worship is connected with the urge to self-castration, suicide, murder. There are many instances in literature of people cutting their own throat in honor of Kālī in Durgā temples.

100.

   Cf. Bani Kanta Kakati,

.

101.

   In

III, 26ff. the Devī-Navarātravrata is explained. Cf. P. V. Kane,

, V/I, describes some other common Devī feasts:

(p. 125, worship against snakebite);

(pp. 144f.)

(pp. 432f.);

(p. 434);

(p. 455);

(p. 105). For the history of present-day worship of Devī during Durgā-Pūjā in a mud-image, cf. D. C. Sircar,

, pp. 74f., N. 1.

102.

   Barua-Murthy,

, p. 37.

103.

   The Purāṇas contain a large number of chapters on the mode of worship of Devī. The bulk of Tantras also consists of rituals and ceremonies. Cf.

VIII, 24f.

V, 32f.

IX, 4ff.

IX, 15, 25; XII, 13ff. Cf.

(1968), pp. 350ff.

104.

   H. Whitehead,

, pp. 112ff.

105.

   Śaktism is intimately connected with Kāśmīr Śaivism; Śrīpati’s system of Śaivism is called Śakti-viśiṣṭādvaita.

and

contain many chapters in which Śaivism and Śāktism are combined.

106.

(jñānakhaṇḍa), English translation, A. U. Vasavada, p. 156.

107.

   Swami Pratyagatmananda, “Tantra-Philosophy,” in

, vol. III, pp. 437ff.

108.

(English translation), p. 156.

109.

   D. N. Bose,

, pp. 188ff. J. Woodroff,

(Kuṇḍalinī Śakti), pp. 18ff. Swāmi Satyananda,

, pp. 111ff.

110.

XI, 1, 44.

111.

X, 209f.

112.

   Śaṅkara,

, I, 3, 30.

113.

   Rāmānuja,

, I, 1, 1.

114.

.

115.

   Jaideva Singh (ed.),

, pp.

.

116.

   Mādhava,

, chap. V.

117.

(English transl.), p. 154: “The omnipotent Goddess who is consciousness, who is truly the ‘I-consciousness,’ creates appearances of the world upon its own essence like reflections in a mirror by her willpower or the power of

known as freedom.”

118.

   Thus in

I, 1, 58. According to R. C. Hazra the

was originally a Pāñcarātra work with a considerable Śākta element and was composed between 500 and 600 C.E. Toward the beginning of the eighth century, it was recast by paśupatas; Sāktas made further additions

, vol. II, p. 259f.). A similar statement is found in the

. According to R. C. Hazra

, pp. 281 f.), the

belongs to the eleventh or twelfth century.

119.

   Also, such popular contemporary figures as Ānandamayī Mā or Sathya Saī Bābā teach “new religions” with a strong Śākta component.

120.

   V. S. Agrawala, “Mother Earth,” in

, pp. 490–496.

121.

   Much of this information is taken from an article by June McDaniel, “Four Schools of Śāktism,” in

, Feb. 1993.

8

SMĀRTAS
– TRADITIONAL HINDU UNIVERSALISTS

Besides the adherents of the many Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, and Śākta
saṃpradāyas
who maintain strict separation between their communities and who not infrequently engage in sectarian denunciation of each other, there is a large group of traditional Hindus called
Smārtas
. They characteristically pay devotion to Viṣṇu, Śiva, and Devī (and in addition to Śūrya and Gaṇeśa, and often also to Kārttikeya or Brahmā), and follow a non-sectarian path, according to the regulations of the traditional law-books.
¹

The name
Smārta
is derived from
Smṛti
, literally “remembrance,” “memory,” alluding to the class of writings called
Smṛtis
, such as the
Manusmṛti
, which codify the right behavior of traditional (“orthodox”) caste Hindus, and also to a general attitude of respectful acknowledgment of the traditional “Vedic” way of life. They de-emphasize the exclusivity of sectarian worship of specific deities and advocate a return to Vedic religiosity.

The
Ṛgveda
already declares that Indra is known by many names and that the learned understood these many names as referring to One.
²
It leaves it open who this One really is. The Upaniṣads go further and relativize the individual deities and the sacrifice offered to them; an attitude that leads in the
Bhagavadgītā
to Kṛṣṇa’s assurance that all prayers and offerings, to whichever deity made by sincere worshipers, were made to him, and that he would reward the devotees of all the gods.
³

With the rise of narrowly circumscribed communities of Vaiṣṇavas, Śaivas and Sāktas, based on scriptures and rituals of their own, a sense of separateness increased among Hindus and very often they no longer felt belonging to one and the same Great Tradition. They competed against each other and mutually ridiculed each others’ beliefs and practices. When Buddhism and Jainism arose, this disunity of Hindus proved to be their undoing. It was easy for the Buddhists and Jains to point to the self-contradictory nature of Hinduism and to highlight the mutual hostility between Hindu sects. The more liberal among the Vaiṣṇavas, Śaivas, and Sāktas tried to bridge the differences between the sects. According to R. C. Hazra, “the
smārta
adherents of the different sects changed the character of their respective deities to a great extent and brought them nearer to the Vedic gods. Their intention was to preach their own reformed Brahmāism, Vaiṣṇavism and Śaivism, as against the heretical religions, and to popularize thereby the Vedic ideas as far as possible among all.”
⁴

Śaṇkara, the great reformer of Hinduism, following the lead provided by the
smārtas
, introduced
pañcāyātana pūjā
, the simultaneous worship of five deities, viz. Gaṇeśa, Viṣṇu, Śiva, Devī and Śūrya, accommodating the major Hindu sects under one umbrella. Instead of playing one of these great gods out against the other, as the sectarians did, he insisted on the undivided
(advaita)
nature of the Ultimate, that could not be named and could not be separated from anything. Śaṇkara himself is credited with having composed hymns to all these deities as well as hymns that address the Ultimate as impersonal and nameless.
⁵
The members of the religious orders which he reorganized, the Daśanāmis, are
smārtas
. The successors to Śaṇkara, the heads of the
maṭhas
founded by him, who are universally respected religious leaders, continue to propagate the
smārta
viewpoint.

Sri Chandrasekharendra Sarasvati, the Śaṇkarācārya of Kāṅcī Kāmakoti Pīṭha for most of the twentieth century, introduced the custom to sing at every
pūjā
in temples and homes during the month of Margaśirsa both Aṇṭāl’s
Tiruppavai
, a hymn in praise of Viṣṇu, and Manikkavācagar’s
Tiruvembavai
, a hymn glorifying Śiva. He organized
Tiruppavai-Tiruvembavai
conferences to foster a feeling of unity between Vaiṣṇavas and Śaivas. As he said: “Among us there is the concept of the
iṣṭa-devatā
, of the particular form of God which one chooses for his worship and meditation. To get at the One Supreme, you must start from some manifestations of It and you choose it as your
iṣṭa-devatā
. Another man may choose another manifestation. As each progresses in his devotion and concentration, he will be led on to the One where the differences disappear. That has been the experience of great sages and saints. A true Śiva-bhakta has no quarrel with a true Viṣṇu-bhakta.”
⁶

The Śaṅkarācārya himself performed
pūjā
to both deities and insisted that Advaita, the underlying philosophy, not only bridged sectarian boundaries but also transcended Hinduism – indeed it was the one insight that was the foundation of all religion and science.
⁷

It is hard to say how many Hindus are Smārtas – they often would not identify themselves as such. They assume that it is the typical non-sectarian Hindu approach that need not be named. While believing in the Oneness and Namelessness of the Ultimate, they usually choose an
istadevatā
, one particular form and name of God which most appeals to them (or as they would often say, has chosen them!) to worship. Thus some Smārtas may worship Viṣṇu or Kṛṣṇa, others Śiva or Devī, as their favourite object of devotion. What distinguishes them from the members of particular Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, or Śākta
saṃpradāyas
is their non-sectarian approach and their conviction that other forms of worship are as valid as their own. Often
smārtas
, true to the root-meaning of their designation, are also staunch upholders of traditional austere living practices: they observe the ancient rules of purity often under great hardship and uncompromisingly follow the regulations of their
dharma.
⁸
Where members of other
saṃpradāyas
may often make concessions to circumstances and human weakness, the
smārtas
would show iron will and discipline as part of their tradition.

A contemporary essay entitled
Smārta-yoga
⁹
offers extracts from the Sṃrtis that have relevance for the conduct of life with a view to finding ultimate liberation. Its author, a Smārta himself, attempts to show that the rituals prescribed in the Vedic texts “are not concerned only with the outer physical actions but aim at an all-round development of human personality.” He continues: “This Smārta Yoga does not require that the aspirant should give up the household life and run away from society. While advising to do the personal, social and other duties when traversing on the path of emancipation, this Yoga also pays attention to building up the character and developing integrity.”
¹⁰
He cites the definition of Yoga given in the Vedic Āpastamba Sūtras: “Freedom from anger, from contempt and from envy, generosity, sincerity, not hankering after sense-enjoyment, peace of mind, sense control, harmony with all living beings – this is Yoga.”
¹¹

NOTES

1.

   R. C. Majumdar, “Evolution of Religio-Philosophic Culture in India,” in

, vol. IV, pp. 31–62.

2.

I, 164, 46.

3.

IX, 23.

4.

   R. C. Hazra, “The Purāṇas,”

, vol. II, pp. 240–270. The reference is on p. 250.

5.

   A selection, with English translations and commentaries, is provided in T. M. P. Mahadevan,

. Madras: Ganesh, 1970.

6.

   T. M. P. Mahadevan,

, Secundarabad: Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Sankara Mandir, 1967 p. 45.

7.

   Ibid., p. 44.

8.

   R. C. Hazra, an acknowleged Purāṇa scholar, makes the Smārtas responsible for inserting Smṛti topics into the Purāṇas. Cf. his essay “The Purāṇas,” in

vol. II, pp. 240–270.

9.

   R. Kokaje,

, translated from the original Sanskrit by C. T. Kenghe, Lonavla: Yoga-Mimamsa Prakasana, 1970.

10.

   Ibid., p. 30.

11.

I, 23, 6 (my translation).

9

A SHORT HISTORY OF HINDU PHILOSOPHY

Reflection and speculation, the characteristics of what we call . “philosophy,” have been the hallmark of Hinduism from its earliest times to the present. The
Ṛgveda
contains hymns that could be called philosophical: the famous “Hymn of Creation”
¹
begins by stating that in the beginning “there was neither being nor non-being, neither air nor sky, and goes on to ask: “Whence came this world? The gods were born after this world’s creation: who can know from whence it has arisen?”