How to Read a Paper: The Basics of Evidence-Based Medicine (51 page)

If outcome event is undesirable (e.g. death)

CER = risk of undesirable outcome in control group =
a
/(
a
+
b
)

EER = risk of undesirable outcome in experimental group =
c
/(
c
+
d
)

Relative risk of undesirable event in experimental versus control group = EER/CER

Absolute risk reduction in treated group (ARR) = CER − EER

Number needed to treat (NNT) = 1/ARR = 1/(CER − EER)

If outcome event is desirable (e.g. cure)

CER = risk of desirable outcome in control group =
a
/(
a
+ b)

EER = risk of desirable outcome in experimental group =
c
/(
c
+
d
)

Relative benefit increase in treated versus control group = EER/CER

Absolute benefit increase in treated versus control group = EER − CER

Number needed to treat (NNT) = 1/ARR = 1/(EER − CER)

Acknowledgement

Thanks to Paul Glasziou from the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine for clarification on these concepts.

Index

absolute risk reduction (ARR)

absolutism

absorptive capacity (organisations)

academic detailing

accessible standards

‘accountability culture’

accuracy

ACP PIER

additional risk

adult learning

advertising, DTCA

advice for patients

AGREE instrument

allocation concealment, CONSORT checklist

analysis of variance

anecdotes

DTCA

anti-inflammatory drugs, non-steroidal

anticoagulant therapy

applicability

clinical

guidelines

appraisal, critical,
see
critical appraisal

ARR (absolute risk reduction)

aspirin, meta-analyses

assessment

‘blind’

clinical guidelines

methodological quality

needs

assumptions, unquestioned

avoidable suffering

baseline data, CONSORT checklist

baseline differences

behavioural learning

bias

expectation

selection

systematic

work-up (verification)

biological markers of disease

‘blind’ assessment

blinding, CONSORT checklist

blobbogram,
see
forest plot

bluffing, deliberate

boundaries

fuzzy

organisational

break-even point

browsing, informal

Caesarean section,
see
induced delivery

CardioSource

care, quality of

care pathways, integrated (critical)

case

systematic bias

case reports

case studies

‘caseness’

causation

tests for

CBT (cognitive behaviour therapy)

Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM)

CHAIN (Contact, Help, Advice and Information Network)

‘champions’

cheating with statistical tests

checklist

CONSORT

context-sensitive

QADAS

systematic reviews data sources

choice, informed

cholesterol

hypercholesterolaemia

Cinderella conditions

citation chaining

classical management theory

clinical applicability

clinical decision-making

clinical disagreement

clinical evidence

clinical freedom

clinical guidelines

implementation

clinical heterogeneity

clinical prediction rules

‘clinical queries’

clinical questions

clinical trials

non-randomised controlled

RCT,
see
randomised controlled trials

CME (continuing medical education)

Cochrane, Archie

Cochrane Collaboration

Cochrane EPOC,
see
EPOC group

cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)

cohort studies

systematic bias

collection of data

collective knowledge

common sense

comparable groups

COMPASEN format

completeness of follow-up

complex interventions

complexity theory

confidence intervals

diagnostic tests

conflict of interest

consistency

CONSORT statement

RCTs

Contact, Help, Advice and Information Network (CHAIN)

context

context-sensitive checklist

context-specific psychological antecedents

quality improvement case studies

receptive context for change

continuing medical education (CME)

continuous results

control group

controlled clinical trials, non-randomised

controlled trials, randomised,
see
randomised controlled trials

correlation

correlation coefficient

Pearson

cost analysis

cost

cost-minimisation

‘cost per case’

counting-and-measuring perspective

covariables

criteria, stringent

critical appraisal

pre-appraised sources

qualitative papers

critical care pathways

cross-sectional surveys

cumulative meta-analyses

current practice

cut-off point

DALY (disability-adjusted life year)

data

baseline

collection

dredging

paired

pooled

skewed

databases

DARE

EPOC

primary studies

systematic reviews

TRIP

see
also sources, resources

decision-making

evidence-based

evidence-based practice

shared

therapy

deduction

deep venous thrombosis (DVT)

deliberate bluffing

delivery, induced

design

complex interventions

RCT

research

studies

‘detailers’

detailing, academic

diabetes

qualitative research

shared decision-making

yoga control

diagnosis

diagnostic sequence

diagnostic tests

validation

‘dice therapy’

dichotomy

qualitative

direct costs

direct-to-consumer-advertising (DTCA)

disability-adjusted life year (DALY)

disagreement, clinical

discourse analysis

‘doing nothing’

Donald, Anna

‘dose

dredging, data

‘drug reps’

drug treatments

drugs,
see
also therapy, treatments

duration of follow-up

DVT (deep venous thrombosis)

DynaMed

EBM,
see
evidence-based medicine

economic analyses

editorial independence

education for patients

educational intervention, specific

effective searching

efficacy analysis

eligibility criteria

embodied knowledge

endpoints, surrogate

epilepsy

EPOC Group

ethical considerations

drug trials

QALYs

RCTs

ethnography

Evans, Grimley

evidence

application on patients

formalisation

hierarchy of

level of

‘methodologically robust’

evidence-based decision-making

evidence-based guidelines

evidence-based medicine (EBM)

criticisms

essential steps

reading papers

web-based resources

‘evidence-based organisation’

evidence-based policymaking

evidence-based practice

expectation bias

‘expert opinion’

harmful practices

explanation of results

surrogate endpoints

explanatory variables

explicit methods

explicit standards

external validity

‘eXtra’ material

Eysenck, Hans

F
-test

falsifiable hypotheses

federated search engines

‘female hypoactive sexual desire’

focus groups

focusing, progressive

follow-up

forest plot

formalisation of evidence

formulation of problems

freedom, clinical

fuzzy boundaries

‘geeks’

general health questionnaire, SF-36

general psychological antecedents

generalisability

CONSORT checklist

GIDEON (Global Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology Network)

GIGO (garbage in, garbage out)

GOBSAT (good old boys sat around a table)

‘gold standard’ test

good clinical questions

Google Scholar

Grimshaw, Jeremy

Grol, Richard

group relations theory

groups

comparable

focus

subgroups

guidelines

as formalised evidence

implementation

practice

SQUIRE

guiding principles

Guyatt, Gordon

hands-on information

hanging comparative

harmful practices

‘expert opinion’

health professionals

evidence-based practice

shared decision-making

health-related lifestyle

Helman, Cecil

‘here and now’

heterogeneity