Authors: Stephen E. Ambrose
2.
Ibid., p. 253.
3.
Ibid., pp. 244â45.
4.
Ray Cline,
Secrets, Spies, and Scholars
, pp. 162â63; New York
Times
, November 30, 1976; William Corson,
The Armies of Ignorance
, p. 367; Hunt interview.
5.
Cline,
Secrets, Spies, and Scholars
, p. 163.
6.
New York
Times
, November 30, 1976; Corson,
Armies of Ignorance
, pp. 367â68.
7.
Cline,
Secrets, Spies, and Scholars
, p. 164.
8.
Corson,
Armies of Ignorance
, p. 368; New York
Times
, June 4, 1956.
9.
Ibid., pp. 369â70.
10.
Interview with Milton Eisenhower.
11.
William Colby,
Honorable Men: My Life in the CIA
, pp. 134â35.
12.
Hunt interview.
13.
Corson,
Armies of Ignorance
, p. 371.
14.
Memorandum of conference, October 6, 1956, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Staff Notes, “October, 1956.”
15.
Corson,
Armies of Ignorance
, p. 382.
16.
Gray interview.
17.
Bissell interview.
18.
Cline,
Secrets, Spies, and Scholars
, p. 132.
19.
Ibid., p. 133.
20.
Halperin told the Church Committee, “I believe that the U.S. should no longer maintain a career service for the purpose of conducting covert operations.” Church Committee, vol. 7, p. 58.
21.
Gray interview.
22.
Church Committee, book IV, p. 62.
23.
Memorandum of a conference with the President, January 19, 1957, Dwight D. Eisenhower Notes, “January, 1957.”
24.
Church Committee, book IV, p. 63.
25.
Ibid., p. 62.
26.
Washington
Post
of November 13, 1954, and
U. S. News
of March 19, 1954.
27.
Pentagon Papers
, book 9, pp. 38â41.
28.
Ibid., p. 241.
29.
Eisenhower interview.
30.
Pentagon Papers
, book 9, p. 244.
31.
Pentagon Papers
, as published by the New York
Times
, July 5, 1971.
32.
Pentagon Papers
, book 9, pp. 334â36.
33.
Pentagon Papers
, New York
Times
, July 5, 1971.
34.
Ibid.;
Pentagon Papers
, book 10, pp. 753â55.
35.
Pentagon Papers
, New York
Times
, July 5, 1971.
36.
Ibid.
37.
David Wise and Thomas Ross,
Invisible Government
, pp. 157â58.
38.
Pentagon Papers
, book 10, pp. 776â79.
39.
Wise and Ross,
Invisible Government
, p. 140.
40.
Ibid., p. 141.
41.
Victor Marchetti and John Marks,
The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence
, p. 128; Wise and Ross,
Invisible Government
, p. 137.
42.
Pentagon Papers
, New York
Times
, July 5, 1971.
43.
Wise and Ross,
Invisible Government
, p. 136.
44.
Cline,
Secrets, Spies, and Scholars
, p. 182.
1.
Ray Cline,
Secrets, Spies, and Scholars
, p. 141.
2.
Ibid., p. 142.
3.
Ibid., pp. 142â43.
4.
Ibid.
5.
Andrew Tully,
CIA: The Inside Story
, p. 110.
6.
Warren Unna, “CIA: Who Watches the Watchman?”
Harper's Magazine
, April, 1958.
7.
Pentagon Papers
, book 9, p. 47.
8.
Stephen E. Ambrose,
Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938
, p. 232.
9.
Interview with Eisenhower.
10.
Pentagon Papers
, book 9, pp. 564â65.
11.
Interview with Matthew Ridgway; Ambrose,
Rise to Globalism
, p. 233.
12.
Pentagon Papers, book 10, p. 692.
13.
Dwight D. Eisenhower,
Mandate for Change
, p. 372.
14.
Interview with Eisenhower.
15.
Pentagon Papers
, book 10, p. 752.
16.
Public Papers of the Presidents: DDE, 1954
(Washington, 1960), pp. 948â49.
17.
Marvin Kalb and Elie Abel,
Roots of Involvement: The U. S. in Asia
, p. 102.
18.
Pentagon Papers
, book 10, pp. 1,190â98.
19.
Goodpaster interview.
20.
Interview with Milton Eisenhower, Baltimore
Sun
, September 9, 1979.
21.
Eisenhower diary.
1.
This chapter is heavily based on two long interviews with Richard Bissell, one by the Columbia University Oral History Project, the other by Richard Immerman. All statements of fact and quotations not otherwise footnoted come from one or the other of the Bissell interviews.
2.
Ray Cline,
Secrets, Spies, and Scholars
, p. 156.
3.
Ibid., p. 157.
4.
Church Committee, book IV, p. 59.
5.
Cline,
Secrets, Spies, and Scholars
, p. 157.
6.
Dwight D. Eisenhower,
Mandate for Change
, pp. 520â21.
7.
Church Committee, book IV, p. 59.
8.
Bissell's testimony on these matters is fully corroborated, in detail, in separate interviews with John Eisenhower and Andrew Goodpaster.
9.
Memo of conference, November 6, 1956, Whitman File, Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas.
10.
Dwight D. Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 91.
11.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Phone calls, 12/56.” Ike recorded, or had Ms. Whiteman take shorthand notes of, almost all his phone conversations.
12.
Cline,
Secrets, Spies, and Scholars
, p. 158.
13.
Francis Gary Powers,
Operation Overflight
, pp. 308â9.
14.
Bissell interview.
15.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 301; Goodpaster interview.
16.
Based on many discussions with Eisenhower during interviews.
17.
Goodpaster interview.
18.
Quoted in Stephen E. Ambrose,
Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938
, p. 223.
19.
Ibid.
20.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Phone calls, 12/56.”
21.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 595.
22.
Ibid., p. 601.
1.
Interview with John Eisenhower.
2.
Dwight D. Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 546; italics mine.
3.
Bissell interview.
4.
Ibid.
5.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 446.
6.
Bissell interview; Gray interview.
7.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 546.
8.
Ibid.
9.
Memorandum of a conference with the President, July 11, 1960, Whitman file, Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas.
10.
Bissell interview.
11.
Francis Gary Powers,
Operation Overflight
, p. 229.
12.
Ibid., p. 353.
13.
Bissell interview; Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 547.
14.
Bissell interview.
15.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 543.
16.
Ibid., p. 547.
17.
Lyman Kirkpatrick,
The Real CIA
, p. 97.
18.
Powers,
Operation Overflight
, p. 353.
19.
The text of Khrushchev's speech is in the New York
Times
, May 6, 1960.
20.
Ibid.
21.
Ibid., May 8, 1960.
22.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 549.
23.
New York
Times
, May 8, 1960.
24.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 551.
25.
New York
Times
, May 9, 1960.
26.
Ibid., May 13, 1960.
27.
Ibid., May 12, 1960.
28.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 552.
29.
Vernon Walters,
Silent Missions
, p. 342.
30.
New York
Times
, May 8, 1960.
31.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, pp. 558â59.
32.
Ibid., p. 553.
33.
Walters,
Silent Missions
, p. 341.
34.
Ibid., pp. 344â47.
35.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 558.
36.
James A. Nathan, “A Fragile Détente: The U-2 Incident Re-examined,”
Military Affairs
, vol. XXXIX (October 1975), pp. 97â103.
37.
Los Angeles
Times
, August 28, 1977.
38.
Powers,
Operation Overflight
, p. 357.
39.
Helms to J. Edgar Hoover, May 13, 1964, Warren Commission Document 931, National Archives, Washington.
40.
Hearing Before the Committee on Armed Services, on Francis Gary Powers
, U. S. Senate, 87th Congress, 2d session, March 6, 1962.
41.
Bissell to Immerman, October 29, 1979, Immerman's possession.
1.
Church Committee, “Alleged Assassination Plots,” pp. 14, 15.
2.
Harry Rositzke,
The CIA's Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage, and Covert Action
, p. 197; Thomas Powers,
The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA
, pp. 145â49.
3.
Church Committee, “Alleged Assassination Plots,” p. 51.
4.
Church Committee, book IV, p. 138.
5.
Church Committee, “Alleged Assassination Plots,” p. 52.
6.
Ibid., p. 64.
7.
Goodpaster interview.
8.
Church Committee, “Alleged Assassination Plots,” p. 55.
9.
Ibid., p. 60.
10.
Gray interview.
11.
New York
Times
, December 26, 1975.
12.
Church Committee, book IV, p. 131. Both Wisner and Hunt testified to the Church Committee that they knew of no assassination missions or planning by PB/7, beyond the general discussion among Pash and others in the process of establishing OPC. The capability was there, but it was never used. Pash testified that “I was never asked to undertake such planning.”
13.
Church Committee, book IV, p. 133.
14.
Ibid.
15.
This discussion relies heavily on Stewart C. Easton,
World History Since 1945
, pp. 685â91.
16.
Church Committee, “Alleged Assassination Plots,” p. 53.
17.
Ibid., p. 58.
18.
Ibid.
19.
Ibid., p. 15.
20.
Ibid.
21.
Ibid., pp. 16â17.
22.
Ibid., p. 19.
23.
Ibid., p. 48.
24.
Ibid., pp. 64â65.
25.
Ibid., p. 66.
26.
Ibid., p. 73.
27.
Ibid., pp. 73â81; Peter Wyden,
Bay of Pigs: The Untold Story
, pp. 40â43.
28.
Church Committee, “Alleged Assassination Plots,” p. 72.
29.
Ibid., p. 92.
30.
Ibid., pp. 109â11.
31.
Ibid., p. 112.
32.
Ibid., pp. 112â13.
33.
Ibid., p. 113.
34.
Ibid.
35.
Ibid., p. 115.
36.
Ibid.
1.
Interview with Eisenhower. Ike put Goodpaster in a category with Robert Anderson and his brother Milton.
2.
Goodpaster interview.
3.
Church Committee, “Alleged Assassination Plots,” p. 92.
4.
Ibid., p. 93.
5.
Peter Wyden,
Bay of Pigs: The Untold Story
, p. 24.
6.
Church Committee, “Alleged Assassination Plots,” p. 93.
7.
Ibid.
8.
Wyden,
Bay of Pigs
, p. 25.
9.
Church Committee, “Alleged Assassination Plots,” p. 93; Wyden,
Bay of Pigs
, p. 25.
10.
Dwight D. Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 533.
11.
Bissell interview.
12.
Ibid.
13.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 537.
14.
Taylor Report. Immediately after the Bay of Pigs, President Kennedy had General Maxwell Taylor make a full investigation and report to him. In 1977 a part of this report, in an expurgated form, was made available to scholars through the John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, Massachusetts.
15.
Wyden,
Bay of Pigs
, p. 31.
16.
Ibid., p. 69.
17.
Bissell interview.
18.
Ibid.
19.
Eisenhower,
Waging Peace
, p. 534; Wyden,
Bay of Pigs
, pp. 22â23.
20.
Wyden,
Bay of Pigs
, p. 68; Gray interview.