Authors: Zeinab Abul-Magd
9.
Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
102–8; Shaw translation notes in Huseyn Efendi,
Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964), 141,144; Shaw,
Financial and Administrative Organization,
14, 79.
10.
Shaw,
Financial and Administrative Organization,
14.
11.
Vivant Denon,
Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Égypte
(Paris: Imprimerie de P. Didot l’aine, 1802), 255–56; Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
102–8; Shaw translation notes in Huseyn Efendi,
Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution,
141, 144; Shaw,
Financial and Administrative Organization,
14, 79; James Bruce,
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, in the years
1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772,
and
1773 (Edinburgh: Printed by J. Ruthven, for G.G.J. and J. Robinson, London, 1790), 1:100.
12.
Muhammad Ibn Abd Allah al-Amir al-Maliki, “Risala fi man Tawalla al-Sa‘id min al-’Umara al-Jarakisa,” 5–7, unpublished manuscript, Manuscript No. 6686, al-Azhar Library, Cairo; Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr al-‘Uthmaniyya,
168–69.
13.
See K.N. Chaudhuri,
Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to
1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); R.J. Barendse,
The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century
(Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2002); Janet Abu Lughod,
Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D.
1250–1350 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); and Frank,
ReOrient.
14.
About Qina Province’s trade in the Mamluk period, see Taqyy al-Din al-Maqrizi,
Al-Mawa‘iz wa-l-’I‘tibar bi Dhikr al-Khitat wa-l-’Athar
(Cairo: Maktabat al-Thaqafa al-Diniyya, 1987), 1:202–3; Muhammad ‘Abdu al-Hajjaji,
Qus fi-l-Tarikh al ’Islami
(Cairo: al-Hay’a al-Misriyya al-‘Amma lil-Kitab, 1982); Abu al-Fadl al-
’
Idfawi,
Al-Tali‘ al-Sa‘id al-Jami‘ li Asma’ Nujaba’
al-Sa‘ id
(Cairo: al-Dar al-Misriyya lil-Ta’lif wa-al-Tarjama, 1966); and Jean-Claude Garcin,
Un centre musulman de la Haute-Égypte médiévale: Qús
(Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale du Caire, 1976).
15.
Fred Lawson,
The Social Origins of Egyptian Expansionism during the Muhammad Ali Period
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 58–61; Fred Lawson, “Rural Revolt and Provincial Society in Egypt, 1820–1824,”
International Journal of Middle East Studies
13 (2) (May 1981): 132–33; Nabil al-Sayyid al-Tukhi,
Sa‘id Misr fi ‘Ahd al-Hamla al-Faransiyya,
1798–1801 (Cairo: al-Hay’a al-Misriyya al-‘Amma lil-Kitab, 1997), 61.
16.
Muhammad al-Maraghi al-Jirjawi,
Tarikh Wilayyat al-Sa‘id fi al-‘Asrayn al-Mamluki wa-l-‘Uthmani al-Musamma bi Nur al-‘Uyun bi-Dhikr Jirja fi ‘Ahd Thalathat Qurun
(Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahda, 1997), 107. Ahmad,
al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
32. About sugar cultivation in Farshut see, Ahmad al-Hitta,
Tarikh Misr al-Iqtisadi
(Alexandria: Matba ‘at al-Misri, 1967), 8, 16, 111; and Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr al-‘Uthmaniyy,
263.
17.
Abu Lughod,
Before European Hegemony,
232.
18.
Shaw,
Financial and Administrative Organization,
78.
19.
Cezzar,
Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century,
41.
20.
Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr al-‘Uthmaniyya,
263; Shaw translation notes in Huseyn Efendi,
Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution,
138–39.
21.
Copts are the native Orthodox Christians. The distinction between “Arabs” and “Copts” here applies only to this period, relying on the contemporary literature. Later developments and historical interpretations render the line drawn between the two groups inaccurate.
22.
Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
55.
23.
Shaw,
Financial and Administrative Organization,
24–25.
24.
al-Damurdashi,
Al-Durra al-Musana,
45–49.
25.
Shaw translation notes in Huseyn Efendi,
Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution,
141.
26.
Richard Pococke,
A Description of the East, and Some Other Countries
(London: Printed for the author, by W. Bowyer, 1743–45), 1:89; Shari‘a Court Records of Isna (hereafter Isna Court), Sijill 1, Case 59, p. 48, 12 Rabi‘ Akhir 1170, and Isna Court, Sijill 1, Case 66, p. 54, 8 Rabi‘ Akhir 1170, both in National Archives of Egypt, Cairo (hereafter NAE).
27.
Pococke,
Description of the East,
1:68–69, 77.
28.
Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr al-‘Uthmaniyya,
159–72.
29.
Bruce,
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile,
1:146–49.
30.
For example, Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 7, Case 70, 12 Rajab 1173, p. 37; Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 14, Part 2, Case 63, p. 42, 1177; Sijill Ishhadat 15, Part 1, Case 129, p. 87, 1178; Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 17, Part 1, Case 1, p. 1, 9 Shawwal 1179; and Qina Court, Portfolio No. 1, Dhu al-Hijja 1180, all records found in Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr
al-‘Uthmaniyya,
appendix 22, 446–47. Some historians mistakenly claim that the land between Asyut and Aswan was communal, or
masha‘,
and peasants enjoyed no usufruct rights to it and the Arab shaykhs and large tax farmers distributed different plots each year. This differed from the ’
athariyya
land known in Lower and Middle Egypt. The ’
athariyya
is enclosed by borders that divided the land of one peasant from that of another. These borders did not change from year to year, as the same peasant kept the same holding each year, unless transactions took place among peasants. Al-Hitta,
Tarikh Misr al-’Iqtisadi,
5–6. Nonetheless, court records of Isna and Qina show that the same system of landholding was applied in Upper Egypt as in the Delta.
31.
Muhammad ‘Afifi,
Al-’Aqbat fi Misr fi al-‘Asr al-‘Uthmani
(Cairo: al-Hay’a al-Misriyya al-‘Amma lil-Kitab, 1992), 152–53; Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 53, Case 317, p. 143, 10 Ramadan 1216; Sijill Ishhadat 52, Case 294, p. 146, 7 Sha‘ban 1215, both in NAE.
32.
Ahmad,
Al-’Idara fi Misr fi-l-‘Asr al-‘Uthmani,
273–91.
33.
See Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat, 1172–1215, NAE.
34.
Ibid.
35.
Isna Court, Portfolio 3, 25 Jumada al-Awwal 1221, records found in Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr al-‘Uthmaniyya,
appendix 4, 407.
36.
See al-Damurdashi,
Al-Durra al-Musana,
51; and Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
26–29.
37.
Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr al-‘Uthmaniyya,
193–203.
38.
al-Damurdashi,
Al-Durra al-Musana fi ’Akhbar al-Kinana,
41. The translation is courtesy of Daniel Crecelius and ‘Abd al-Wahhab Bakr, trans.,
Al-Damurdashi’s Chronicle of Egypt,
1688–1755 (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1991), 81.
39.
al-Damurdashi,
Al-Durra al-Musana fi ’Akhbar al-Kinana,
40–41.
40.
al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-Athar,
1:139.
41.
Edward Lane,
An Account of the Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians: Written in Egypt During the Years
1833, 34,
and
35 (London: Charles Knight and Co., 1837), 1:3.
42.
al-Damurdashi,
Al-Durra al- Musana,
40–41.
43.
al-Damurdashi,
Al-Durra al-Musana,
41. The translation is courtesy of Crecelius and Bakr,
Al-Damurdashi’s Chronicles of Egypt,
82.
44.
Ibid.
45.
Ibid.
46.
Ibid., 49–60. The translation is courtesy of Crecelius and Bakr,
Al-Damurdashi’s Chronicles of Egypt,
94.
47.
Ibid.
48.
Ibid.
49.
Denon,
Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Égypte,
2:255–56; Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
102–8; Shaw translation notes in Huseyn Efendi,
Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution,
141, 144; Bruce,
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile,
1:100; Shaw,
Financial and Administrative Organization,
14, 79.
50.
Bruce,
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile,
1:117–18.
51.
Haddad, “Project of the Independence of Egypt, 1801,” 174.
52.
Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
21.
53.
al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
2:349–50.
54.
Bruce,
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile,
1:117–18 (quotations preserve historical spellings).
55.
Pococke,
Description of the East,
1:84–85.
56.
Lawson,
Social Origins of Egyptian Expansionism,
59.
57.
Shaw translation notes in Huseyn Efendi,
Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution,
138–39.
58.
A French report observed this in 1753. See also Terence Walz,
Trade between Egypt and Bilad As-Sudan
(Cairo: Institute Français d’Archéologie Orientale du Caire, 1978), 10; and Bruce,
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile,
1:151, 195–96, 200. About Hammam’s control over Qusayr, see Cezzar,
Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century,
44.
59.
Walz,
Trade between Egypt and Bilad As-Sudan,
1–39. A third route passed through the western oasis.
60.
Bruce,
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile,
1:116–118.
61.
Henry Light,
Travels in Egypt, Nubia, Holy Lands, Mount Lebanon and Cyprus in the Year
1814 (London: Rodwell and Martin, 1818), 48. About Farshut’s sugar, also see Bruce,
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile,
1:116–18.
62.
al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
2:350.
63.
Ibid.; Denon,
Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Égypte,
255–56.
64.
Qina Court, Portfolio 2, no date, cited in Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr al-‘Uthmaniyya,
appendix 13, 422.
65.
al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
2:350.
66.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 15, Part 1, 1178; Isna Court, Sijill 1, Case 59, p. 48, 12 Rabi‘ Akhir 1170; Isna Court, Sijill 1, Case 66, p. 54., 8 Rabi‘ Akhir 1170, all in NAE.
67.
Pococke,
Description of the East,
1:89; Isna Court, Sijill 1, Case 59, p. 48, 12 Rabi‘ Akhir 1170, and Isna Court, Sijill 1, Case 66, p. 54, 8 Rabi‘ Akhir 1170, both in NAE; Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahad Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
113.
68.
‘Afifi,
Al-’Aqbat fi Misr fi al-‘Asr al-‘Uthmani,
102.
69.
Haddad, “Project of the Independence of Egypt, 1801,” 174.
70.
Bruce,
Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile,
1:147 (quotation), 151.
71.
For example, Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 15, Part 1, 1178; Isna Court, Sijill 1, Case 59, p. 48, 12 Rabi‘ Akhir 1170; Isna Court, Sijill 1, Case 66, p. 54, 8 Rabi‘ Akhir 1170, all in NAE.
72.
For example, Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 6, Case 224, p. 121, 21 Jumada al-Awwal 1172; from the same sijill and the same year, Case 58, p. 36; Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 15, Part 1, Case 94, p. 78, 12 Muharram 1178, all in NAE.
73.
Isna Court, Sijills Ishhadat 1–80, 1170–1231, NAE.
74.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 6, Case 224, p. 121, 21 Jumada al-Awwal 1172, NAE.
75.
Al-Amir, “Risala fi man Tawalla al-Sa‘id min al-’Umara al-Jarakisa,” 2–3.
76.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 1, Case 148, p. 107, 17 Rajab 1170, NAE.
77.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 5, Part 1, Case 7, p. 3, 8 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1173, NAE.
78.
Mentions of the Habatirs can be found, for example, in Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 53, case 180, p. 67, 11 Jumad Awwal 1216, NAE.
79.
al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
2:72–73.
80.
Ibid., 2:350.
81.
Cezzar,
Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century,
41; al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
2:306; Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
137.
82.
Daniel Crecelius,
The Roots of Modern Egypt: A Study of the Regimes of ‘Ali Bey al-Kabir and Muhammad Bey Abu al-Dhahab,
1760–1775 (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1981), 51, 59–61; Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
137–40.
83.
Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam,
146–47; Crecelius,
Roots of Modern Egypt,
60–62; Denon,
Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Égypte,
2:255–56
84.
See Ahmad,
Al-Sa‘id fi ‘Ahd Shaykh al-‘Arab Hammam.
85.
Qina Court, Portfolio 1, 10 Sha‘ban 1187 in Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr al-‘Uthmaniyya,
appendix 14, 423–25.
86.
Cezzar,
Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century,
27–28.