Authors: Zeinab Abul-Magd
5.
Michael Hechter,
Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development,
2nd ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1998).
6.
Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali,
66; ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar fi-l-Tarajim wa-l-’Akhbar
(Cairo: Lajnat al-Bayan al-‘Arabi, 1958–), 7:155–57, 162.
7.
al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
7:167. Ibrahim held the position of
al-daftardar.
Ra’uf ‘Abbas et al. (eds.),
Al-’Awamir wa-l-Mukatabat al-Sadira min ‘Aziz Misr Muhammad ‘Ali
(Cairo: Dar al-Kutub wa-al-Watha‘iq al-Qawmiyya, 2005–6), 1:1, 23.
8.
al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
7:234–35.
9.
Ibid.
10.
Amin Sami,
Taqwim al-Nil
(Cairo: Matba‘at Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyya, 1936), introduction, p. 128; 2:290.
11.
al-Jabarti,
’Aja’ib al-’Athar,
7:175–76.
12.
Ibid., 7:367.
13.
Helen Anne Rivlin,
The Agricultural Policy of Muhammad ‘Ali in Egypt
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961), 171–74.
14.
Ibid, 171–72; Muhamad Fu’ad Shukri et al.,
Bina‘ Dawlat Misr Muhammad ‘Ali: Al-Siyasa al-Dakhiliyya
(Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-‘Arabi, 1948), 54.
15.
Fred Lawson,
The Social Origins of Egyptian Expansionism during the Muhammad Ali Period
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 69.
16.
John Bowring,
Report on Egypt and Candia,
1840,
Addressed to the Right Hon. Lord Viscount Palmerston
(London: W. Clowes and Sons, 1840), 67.
17.
‘Abbas et al.,
Al-’Awamir wa-l-Mukatabat,
1:435, 439; 2:286–87.
18.
al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
7:185, 269; Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali,
153; Rivlin,
Agricultural Policy,
146; ‘Abbas et al.,
Al-’Awamir wa-l-Mukatabat,
1:240.
19.
Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali,
149.
20.
See Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali,
127–28, 145–53; Rivlin,
Agricultural Policy,
chapter 8; and Shukri et al.,
Bina‘ Dawlat Misr,
130–51.
21.
‘Abbas et al.,
Al-’Awamir wa-l-Mukatabat,
1:75. For the campaigns, see al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
vol. 7.
22.
See ‘Abd al-Rahim ‘Abd al-Rahman ‘Abd al-Rahim,
Muhammad ‘Ali wa Shibh al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya,
1819–1840 (Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Jami‘i, 1981), 55–56, 508; and Shukri et al.,
Bina‘ Dawlat Misr,
55, 130–51.
23.
See Salah Ahmad Haridi,
Dawr al-Sa‘id fi Misr al-‘Uthmaniyy,
923/1213–1517/1898. (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, 1984); and Terence Walz,
Trade between Egypt and Bilad As-Sudan
(Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale du Caire, 1978).
24.
Arthur T. Holroyd,
Egypt and Mahomed Ali Pacha in
1837:
A Letter, Containing Remarks upon “Egypt as It Is in
1837”;
Addressed to the Right Hon. Viscount Palmerston.
London: James Ridgeway and Sons, 1838., 18.
25.
Quoting Colonel Campbell, the British consul general, in Bowring,
Report on Egypt and Candia,
37.
26.
Ibrahim later traveled to the Delta and applied his southern system there. al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
7:178, 233.
27.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 80, Case 41, p. 16, 4 Dhu al-Hijja 1231, NAE.
28.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 66, p. 23, end of Dhu al-Qi‘da 1229, NAE.
29.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 75, p. 27, 6 Dhu al-Hijja 1229, NAE.
30.
See Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali,
133–35.
31.
al-Jabarti,
‘Aja’ib al-’Athar,
7:481.
32.
Gabriel Baer, “Submissiveness and Revolt of the Fallah,” in
Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1969); Fred Lawson, “Rural Revolt and Provincial Society in Egypt, 1820–1824,”
International Journal of Middle East Studies
13 (2) (May 1981): 131–53; Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali,
133–35.
33.
Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali,
133–34.
34.
‘Ali Mubarak,
Al-Khitat al-Tawfiqiyya,
12:116–17; St. John,
Egypt and Nubia,
381; Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali,
133.
35.
St. John,
Egypt and Nubia,
378–81.
36.
Ibid., 380–81.
37.
Ibid., 379–81.
38.
Ibid., 382.
39.
Khaled Fahmy, “Mutiny in Mehmed Ali’s New
Nizami
Army, April–May 1824,”
International Journal of Turkish Studies
8 (1–2) (2002): 129–38.
40.
St. John,
Egypt and Nubia,
382–84.
41.
Ibid.; ‘Ali Mubarak,
Al-Khitat al-Tawfiqiyya,
12:116–17; Marsot,
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali,
133.
42.
‘Abbas et al.,
Al-’Awamir wa-l-Mukatabat,
1:130–31, 13 Dhu al-Hijja 1239.
43.
See, for example, Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat, 1254–56; and Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, 1260–1261, both in NAE.
44.
Filib Jallad,
Qamus al-’Idara wal-Qada’
(Al-Iskandariyyu: al-Matba‘a al-Bukhariyyah, 1891–), 1:12–15, 1255–56; Zayn al-‘Abidin Shams al-Din Najm,
Mu‘jam al-’Alfaz wa-l-Mustalahat al-Tarikhiyya
(Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-‘Arabi, 2006), 29–30 (on
ab‘adiyya
), 35 (on
‘uhda
), 183–84 (on
çiftlik
).
45.
See, for example, Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, 18 Shawwal 1260; and p. 129, 15 Jumada al-Awwal 1260, both in NAE.
46.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 96, Part 1, Case 102, p. 48, 30 Shawwal 1253, NAE.
47.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 96, Part 1, Case 237, p. 121, 22 Jumada al-Awwal 1254; Sijill 97, Part 1, Case 12, p. 3, 2 Safar 1255, both in NAE.
48.
Mudiriyyat Qina Court, Sijill Murafa‘at 1, Case 11, p. 12, 25 Jumada al-Awwal 1262, NAE.
49.
For examples of cases of elite intermarriages, see Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 275, p. 281, 12 Ramadan 1252; Sijill 96, Part 1, Case 38, p. 18, 22 Muharram 1254; Sijill 96, Case 73, p. 35, 9 Safar 1254; Sijill 96, Case 323, pp. 168–69, 17 Sha‘ban 1254; Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 63, p. 192, 7 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1252; Sijill Ishhadat 94, Case 155, p. 230, 12 Jumada al-Awwal 1252; Sijill 96, Part 1, Case 104, p. 51, 24 Safar 1254; and Sijill 96, Case 109, p. 53, 1 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1254, all in NAE.
50.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 247, p. 270, 14 Sha‘ban 1252. For more examples, see Sijillat Sadir and Warid Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, 1260–64;
Isna Court, Sijills Ishhadat 94–97, 1252–56; Isna Court, Sijill 94, Part 1, Case 121, pp. 213–15, 9 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1252; Isna Court, Sijill 95, Part 1, Case 38, p. 21, 5 Dhu al-Hijja 1253; Isna Court, Sijill 95, Case 43, p. 23, 4 Dhu al-Hijja 1253; Isna Court, Sijill 96, Part 1, Case 102, p. 48, end of Shawwal 1253; Isna Court, Sijill 95, Part 1, Case 2, pp. 1–2, 22 Ramadan 1253; Qina Court, Sijill Murafa‘at, Cases 384–92, p. 88, 1 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1262; Qina Court, Sijill Murafa‘at, Case 91, p. 23, 15 Sha‘ban 1262, all in NAE.
51.
See Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, 1261–63; Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 247, p. 270, 14 Sha‘ban 1252, both in NAE.
52.
For example, see Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 95, Part 1, Case 2, pp. 1–2, 22 Ramadan 1253, NAE.
53.
File “Sadir ‘Ardhalat Mufattish ‘Umum Qibli,” p. 385, 16 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1263, NAE. Bureaucrats did not enjoy property rights to these lands, which were still state property. This would change when the regime introduced private property laws.
54.
Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 7, 1 and 3 Ramadan 1260; p. 12, 23 Ramadan 1260; and p. 389, 2 Jumada al-Thani 1260, all in NAE.
55.
Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 129, 15 Jumada al-Awwal 1260; Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 15, 6 Jumada al-Awwal 1260, both in NAE.
56.
See, for example, Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 13, 15 Jumada al-Awwal 260, NAE.
57.
Ma‘iyya Saniyya, Turkish, Microfilm 24, p. 45, 17 Jumada al-Akhir 1251, NAE.
58.
See Sadir and Warid Mudiriyyat, Qina and Isna, Sijills, 1260–64, NAE.
59.
See Ma‘iyya Saniyya, Turkish, Daftars 80–85; and Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, Ramadan 1260, both in NAE.
60.
Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 367, 23 Jumada al-Awwal 1261, NAE. See also Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 168, 19 Safar 1260, NAE.
61.
Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, Part 2, p. 387, 1261, NAE.
62.
Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 322, 10 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1261, NAE. Also see Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 149, 9 Safar 1260, NAE.
63.
For example, the pasha adopted the term
al-ahali
in his then newly published official gazette,
Al-Waqa’i‘ al-Misriyya
(49) (8 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1245).
64.
Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony refers to the modern state use of certain institutions in subjugating the ruled classes to the ruling elite, who promote their interests as the interests of all, or as the greater good, by subtle and inclusive control over the economy rather than by force. Gramsci considered the legislature, judiciary, and executive institutions “naturally . . . organs of political hegemony, but in different degrees.” Antonio Gramsci,
Selections from the Prison Notebooks
(New York: International Publishers, 1971), 246.
65.
Muhammad Khalil Subhi,
Tarikh al-Haya al-Niyabiyya fi Misr
(Cairo: Matba‘at Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyya, 1947), 4:9–11; Sami,
Taqwim al-Nil,
2:598. See also the minutes of the council’s sessions in
Al-Waqa’i‘ al-Misriyya,
issues of years 1245–49.
66.
Sami,
Taqwim al-Nil,
2:351–52.
67.
For example, see
Al-Waqa’i‘ al-Misriyya,
8 Ramadan 1247, 15 Shawwal 1247, 8 Dhu al-Qi‘ada 1247, 22 Shawwal 1247, and 19 Rajab 1247.; Najm, Zayn al-‘Abidin Shams al-Din (ed.),
Daftar Majmu‘ ’Idara wa-’Ijra’at,
1240–1280/1825–1863
(Watha’iq Tarikh Misr wa-l-’Arab al-Hadith)
(Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-‘Arabi, 2003), 21 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1245, pp. 402–3. See also Sami,
Taqwim al-Nil,
377–79; and
La’ihat Zira‘at al-Fallah wa-Tadbir ’Ahkam al-Siyasa bi-Qasd al-Falah
(Cairo: Matba‘at Sahib al-Sa‘ada, 1829), 20.
68.
Qanun al- Siyasatnama,
in Subhi,
Tarikh al-Hayah al-Niyabiyya,
5:40–75. See also F. Robert Hunter,
Egypt under the Khedives,
1805–1879:
From Household Government to Modern Bureaucracy
(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984), 17–32.
69.
Ma‘iyya Saniyya, Arabic, Microfilm 24, 17 Safar 1245, 7 Shawwal 1251, end of Muharram 1252, and 5 Safar 1252, NAE. During this period, Upper Egypt was divided into two provinces, and the southern one, Nisf Thani Qibli, included Qina and Isna and their rural vicinities.
70.
See Zayn al-‘Abidin Shams al-Din Najm, ’
Idarat al-’Aqalim fi Misr,
1805–1882 (Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Jami‘i, 1988), 128–32.
71.
For example, see Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 199, p. 250, 5 Rajab 1252; Sijill 95, Part 1, Case 98, p. 62, 28 Dhu al-Qi‘da 1253; and Sijill 96, Part 1, Case 2, p. 4, 25 Safar 1254, and Case 3, p. 4, 25 Safar 1254, and Case 102, p. 48, end of Shawwal 1253, and Case 143, p. 71, 18 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1254, all in NAE.
72.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 100, p. 204, 3 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1252, and Case 176, p. 75, 5 Jumada al-Awwal 1252; Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 97, Part 1, Case 139, pp. 82–83, Rabi‘ al-Akhir 1255, all in NAE.
73.
‘Abbas et al.,
al-’Awamir wa-l-Mukatabat,
2:114, 24 Rajab 1253.
74.
Ibid., 2:30, 14 Rajab 1251.
75.
Ibid., 2:99, end of Muharram 1252.
76.
Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, 18 Shawwal 1260, NAE.
77.
Warid Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 30, 25 Shawwal 1263, NAE.
78.
Sadir ‘Ardhalat Mufattish ‘Umum Qibli, p. 385, 16 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1263, NAE; ‘Ali Mubarak,
Al-Khitat al-Tawfiqiyya,
9:217.
79.
‘Abbas et al.,
Al-’Awamir wa-l-Mukatabat,
2:308.
80.
Isna Court, Sijill Ishhadat 94, Part 1, Case 356, p. 320, 22 Dhu al-Qi‘da 1252, NAE.
81.
Sadir ‘Ardhalat Mufattish ‘Umum Qibli, p. 347, 9 Rabi‘ Thani 1263, NAE. Records do not show how the case was concluded and whether the state punished the transgressing shaykhs and bureaucrat.
82.
Qina Court, Sijill Murafa‘at, Case 249, p. 57, 29 Rabi‘ al-Awwal 1263, NAE.
83.
See Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, years 1260–63, NAE. For example, see Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 7, 1 and 3 Ramadan 1260; p. 12, 23 Ramadan 1260; p .389, 2 Jumada al-Thani 1260; and p. 368, 23 Jumada al-Awwal 1261, all in NAE.
84.
Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 7, 3 Ramadan 1260; p. 19, 5 Ramadan 1260; p. 29, 6 Ramadan 1260; p. 19, 23 Ramadan and 12 Shawwal 1260, all in NAE.
85.
Sadir Mudiriyyat, Isna, p. 399, 4 Rajab 1261, NAE.
86.
Sadir Mudiriyyat, Qina, p. 214, 17 Rabi ‘ al-Awwal 1262, NAE; ‘Ali Mubarak,
Al-Khitat al-Tawfiqiyya,
12:135.