Neptune: The Allied Invasion of Europe and the D-Day Landings (62 page)

3.
Mark W. Clark,
Calculated Risk
(New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950), 65; DDE to GCM, August 17, 1942, and DDE to Hartle, Clark, and Lee, August 25, 1942, both in PDDE, 1:496–97 (italics in original); Ambrose,
Eisenhower
, 76.

4.
For a discussion of the political factors in North Africa, a useful source is Francois Kersaudy,
Churchill and De Gaulle
(London: Collins, 1981). See also D’Este,
Eisenhower
, 343ff.

5.
Maurice Matloff and Edwin M. Snell,
Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941–
1942
(Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1953), 285–86. The Roosevelt quotation is from Robert E. Sherwood,
Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History
(New York: Enigma Books, 1948, 2008), 489. See also Clark,
Calculated Risk
, 62; DDE to Harry Butcher, September 2, 1942, and DDE to Thomas T. Handy, September 7, 1942, both in PDDE, 1:546–47, and 2:525.

6.
On the Dieppe raid, see Bernard Fergusson,
The Watery Maze: The Story of Combined Operations
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961), 175–81; Brian Loring Villa,
Unauthorized Action: Mountbatten and the Dieppe Raid
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), which is very hard on Mountbatten; and Robin Neillands,
The Dieppe Raid: The Story of the Disastrous 1942 Expedition
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press), 2005). Eisenhower’s quotation is from DDE to Harry Butcher, September 2, 1942, PDDE, 1:526.

7.
Clark,
Calculated Risk
, 54–55.

8.
After the war, Churchill read Butcher’s published diary and learned that Ike considered these meetings a burden. Churchill expressed skepticism about that, but even if it were true, he wrote, they were “necessary for the conduct of the war.” Winston Churchill,
The Hinge of Fate
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 526–27.

9.
Clark,
Calculated Risk
, 45–46. See the Task Organization tables in Samuel Eliot Morison,
Operations in North African Waters, October 1942–June 1943
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1947; reprinted Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2010), 36–40. Also DDE to GCM, August 17, 1942, PDDE, 1:477; Fergusson,
The Watery Maze
, 197.

10.
George E. Mowry,
Landing Craft and the War Production Board, April 1942 to May
1944
(Historical Reports on War Administration, Special Study No. 11, July 15, 1944), 1–4.

11.
Jerry E. Strahan,
Andrew Jackson Higgins and the Boats That Won World War II
(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994), 76; Maury Klein,
A Call to Arms: Mobilizing America for World War II
(New York: Bloomsbury, 2013), 188–91.

12.
Officially, the Navy had thirteen different types of landing ships or landing craft in early 1942, plus a half dozen tracked amphibious vessels and other specialized landing craft. By the end of the war, the Allies would have forty-six different types of landing ships or landing craft. See Mowry,
Landing Craft and the War Production Board
, 5 (also Appendix C, 72–73); Strahan,
Andrew Jackson Higgins
, 57–58, 64; Morison,
Operations in North African Waters
, 29.

13.
Strahan,
Andrew Jackson Higgins
, 89.

14.
Morison,
Operations in North African Waters
, 137.

15.
DDE to GCM, August 24, and September 21, 1942, PDDE, 1:492, 570; L. S. O. Playfair and C. J. C. Molony,
The Mediterranean and Middle East
, vol. 4 of
History of the Second World War
(London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1966), 127. See the Task Organization Table on 139.

16.
DDE to Thomas T. Handy, September 7, 1942, PDDE, 1:546.

17.
Dwight D. Eisenhower,
Crusade in Europe
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 106; DDE Notes, November 8, 1942, PDDE, 2:675.

18.
Patton to Beatrice Patton, August 11, 1943, in Martin Blumenson, ed.,
The Patton
Papers
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), 2:320. See also William B. Breuer,
Operation Torch: The Allied Gamble to Invade North Africa
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985), 32–33.

19.
Hewitt to C in C, Atlantic, November 28, 1942, BAOR (Mss 416), box 3, USNA; Playfair and Molony,
The Mediterranean and Middle East
, 130; H. Kent Hewitt,
The Memoirs of H. Kent Hewitt
, ed. Evelyn M. Cherpak (Newport, RI: Naval War College Press, 2004), 149–50; Morison,
Operations in North African Waters
, 43–45.

20.
Morison,
Operations in North African Waters
, 48.

21.
Breuer,
Operation Torch
, 82–84; Leslie W. Bailey,
Through Hell and High Water: The
Wartime Memories of a Junior Combat Infantry Officer
(New York: Vantage Press, 1994), 11–12.

22.
Hewitt,
Memoirs
, 159; Clark,
Calculated Risk
, 67–89.

23.
Morison,
Operations in North African Waters
, 74.

24.
H. Kent Hewitt, “TORCH Operation Comments and Recommendations,” December 22, 1942, BAOR (Mss 416), box 4, USNA.

25.
Playfair and Molony,
The Mediterranean and Middle East
, 130; Orr Kelly,
Meeting the Fox: The Allied Invasion of Africa from Operation Torch to Kasserine Pass to Victory in Tunisia
(New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2002), 55.

26.
Kelly,
Meeting the Fox
, 69–70; Bailey,
Through Hell and High Water
, 45–50.

27.
Kelly,
Meeting the Fox
, 75.

28.
Hewitt to C in C Atlantic, November 28, 1942, BAOR (Mss 416), box 3 (hereafter Hewitt Report).

29.
Morison,
Operations in North African Waters
, 84.

30.
Hewitt Report.

31.
Morison,
Operations in North African Waters
, 63, 65, 79; Hewitt Report.

32.
Hewitt Report, 12; Morison,
Operations in North African Waters
, 123.

33.
DesRon 19 to C in C, Atlantic, November 20, 1944, BAOR (Mss 416), box 3, USNA.

34.
Morison,
Operations in North African Waters
, 144–48.

35.
DDE to Walter Bedell Smith, November 10, 1942, and to WSC, December 5, 1942, both in PDDE, 2:686, 801; DDE Memorandum, November 22, 1942, PDDE, 2:761. The historian is George F. Howe,
Northwest Africa: Seizing the Initiative in the West
(Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1957), 3.

36.
DDE to GCM, November 17, 1942, and DDE to Thomas T. Handy, December 7, 1942, both in PDDE, 2:729–32, 812.

37.
DDE to GCM, November 9, 1942, PDDE, 2:680.

38.
For a vivid narrative account of American soldiers in the North African campaign, see Rick Atkinson,
An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943
(New York: Henry Holt, 2002). The casualty figures are from Atkinson, 536–37.

39.
Quoted in Atkinson,
An Army at Dawn
, 535.

Chapter 5: Casablanca to COSSAC

1.
Cabinet Meeting Minutes, January 7, 1943, and January 14, 1943, both in FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 1:509; Gordon A. Harrison,
European Theater of Operations: Cross Channel Attack
(Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1951), 39–40.

2.
WSC to FDR, November 25, 1942, FDR to WSC, December 2, 1942, and WSC to FDR December 3, 1942, all in FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 1:488–90, 494–95, 496.

3.
Robert E. Sherwood,
Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History
(New York: Harper, 1948; reprinted, Enigma Books, 2008), 522–25; David Roll,
The Hopkins Touch
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 244–47.

4.
“Proceedings of the Conference,” January 14, 1943, FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 1:538–41; Brooke Diary (entry of January 14, 1943), 358–59.

5.
Patton to Handy, January 31, 1943, and GCM to Andrew Bruce, January 30, 1943, both in PGCM, 3:520–21, 521n; Alexander to Brooke, April 3, 1944,
Memoirs of Field Marshal Viscount Montgomery
, 185.

6.
Eisenhower’s estimate regarding landing craft is from CCS Minutes, January 16, 1942; the GCM quotation is from FDR conference with JCS, January 7, 1942, both in FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 1:582, 510.

7.
Brooke Diary (January 15 and 16, 1943), 359, 360.

8.
CCS Minutes, January 16, 1943, FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 1: 581–91.

9.
See, for example, WSC to War Cabinet, January 20, 1943, in Winston Churchill,
The Hinge of Fate
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 683.

10.
Brooke Diary (January 17 and 18, 1943, plus subsequent commentary), 361–62; GCM to FDR, February 20, 1943, PGCM, 3:557. The final agreement is in Minutes of CCS Meeting including FDR and WSC, January 18, 1943, in FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 1:598, 628.

11.
Albert C. Wedemeyer,
Wedemeyer Reports!
(New York: Henry Holt, 1958), 211.

12.
Minutes of CCS meetings, January 18, 21, and 22, 1943, FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 1:634, 678, 689.

13.
Quoted in William H. McNeill,
America, Britain and Russia: Their Cooperation and Conflict, 1941–1946
(New York: Johnson Reprint, 1970), 275.

14.
Sherwood,
Roosevelt and Hopkins
, 543; FDR and JCS minutes, January 7, 1943, FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 1:506. Churchill later claimed that he had been surprised by Roosevelt’s comment, but the record shows that they had discussed it days earlier, and Churchill himself used the term in a report to the War Cabinet four days before. The only surprise was that Churchill did not know that Roosevelt would announce it at that particular press conference. See Churchill,
The Hinge of Fate
, 684.

15.
Morgan’s orders, dated April 26, 1943, are in FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 3:287. Operation FORTITUDE included sending as many as 6,000 bogus Army messages and 4,000 bogus Navy messages per day. COMNAVEU (Stark) to CNO (King), April 3, 1944, ComUSNavEu, Subject File, RG 313, box 16, NA.

16.
See Frederick C. Morgan,
Overture to Overlord
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1950); Harrison,
European Theater of Operations
, 48.

17.
Roger Heskith,
Fortitude: The D-Day Deception Campaign
(Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2000), 1–3; Joshua Levine,
Operation Fortitude: The Story of the Spy Operation That Saved D-Day
(London: Collins, 2011), 193–95. Rieve’s war diary is in National Archives Microfilm Publication T-1022,
Records of the German Navy, 1850–1945
, received from the Naval Historical Division, roll 4302, record item PG 38467. I am indebted to Tim Mulligan of the National Archives for bringing this source to my attention.

18.
Morgan,
Overture to Overlord
, 57.

19.
Ibid., 86–87.

20.
Ibid., 132–42.

21.
Ibid., 128.

22.
CCS Minutes, May 12, 1943, FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 3:25.

23.
William D. Leahy,
I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time
(New York: Whittlesey House, 1950), 157; Wedemeyer,
Wedemeyer Reports!
, 215–16.

24.
Churchill,
The Hinge of Fate
, 785; CCS Minutes, May 12, 1943, FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 3:30, 32.

25.
Churchill,
The Hinge of Fate
, 794, 795–96.

26.
The American briefing paper is in FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 3:222–24; the CSS Minutes of May 13 and 14, in which the brief is discussed, are on 41–44, 53–54. The numbers are from Maurice Matloff,
Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943–1944
(Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1959), 45–46.

27.
DDE to GCM, March 12 and May 25, 1943, both in PDDE, 2:1033, 1156; Samuel E. Morison,
The Two-Ocean War
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1963), 245; Frederick C. Lane,
Ships for Victory: A History of Shipbuilding Under the U.S. Maritime Commission in World War II
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1951), 144. The Bulgarian request is from notes Hopkins took at a CCS meeting on March 27, 1943, quoted in Sherwood,
Roosevelt and Hopkins
, 560.

28.
CCS Minutes, May 21, 1943, FRUS (Special Conference Series), 3:348.

29.
Ibid.

30.
“Draft of Agreed Decisions,” May 21, 1943, FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 3:348; Churchill,
The Hinge of Fate
, 810–11; Dwight D. Eisenhower,
Crusade in Europe
(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1949), 167; Harry C. Butcher,
My Three Years with Eisenhower: The Personal Diary of Captain Harry C. Butcher, USNA
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1946), entries of May 29 and 30, 1943, 315–18 (hereafter Butcher Diary); GCM to DDE, April 19, 1943, and DDE to GCM, April 27, 1943, both in PGCM, 3:664–65.

31.
Butcher Diary (July 11, 1943), 355.

32.
Minutes, CCS Meeting, May 25, 1943, FRUS (Special Conference Series), 3:287; FDR-WSC Press Conference, May 25, 1943, ibid., 3:216.

33.
Morgan,
Overture to Overlord
, 137, 97. The quip is quoted in Michael Harrison,
Mulberry: The Return in Triumph
(London: W. H. Allen, 1965), 89.

34.
Morgan,
Overture to Overlord
, 137–42.

35.
Morgan’s preliminary report is in Morgan,
Overture to Overlord
, 148–50. The final report, dated July 15, 1943, is in FRUS (Special Conferences Series), 3:488–96. Quotations are from 493, 496.