Authors: Perminder S. Sachdev

Secondary Schizophrenia (175 page)

cognitive features,
341

ZDHHC8,
318–
19

visual hallucinations (VH)

diagnosis/clinical features,
338–
9

in brain tumor,
265–
6

hepatic symptoms,
338–
9

ziprasidone,
277,
396–
7,
398,

drugs as cause of,
370

neurological symptoms,
339

399

fMRI study,
66

psychiatric symptoms,
339

Zisook, S.,
175

436
Document Outline
Title
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Preface
Section 1 Introduction
Chapter 1 Neurobiology and etiology of primary schizophrenia: current status
Organic/functional versus the primary/secondary categorization: a historical perspective
Schizophrenia as a quintessential “primary” psychotic disorder
Is there brain dysfunction in schizophrenia? Evidence from the prominent cognitive and neurologic impairments
How do neurocognitive alterations originate? Studies of brain function
In which part of the brain can abnomalities be found? Structural brain imaging studies
What is the neurochemical nature of the brain abnormalities in schizophrenia?
What factors cause brain dysfunction? Genetic and environmental influences
When does the illness develop? Schizophrenia as a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder
Investigating primary versus secondary schizophrenia
Conclusions
References
Chapter 2 The concept of organicity and its application to schizophrenia
Introduction
Why not “organic”?
The alternative
References
Chapter 3 Secondary hallucinations
Introduction
Epidemiology of hallucinations in the community
Prevalence of hallucinations in psychiatric disorders
Prevalence of hallucinations in organic disorders
Secondary visual hallucinations
Spectrum of visual perceptual disturbances
Visual hallucinations in normal individuals
Neurobiology of visual hallucinations
Visual hallucinations in psychiatric disorders
Schizophrenia
Delirium
Visual hallucinations in neurological disorders
Localized pathology
Neurodegenerative disorders
Visual hallucinations in substance-related states
Substance intoxication
Substance withdrawal
Secondary auditory hallucinations: Spectrum of auditory perceptual disturbances
Auditory hallucinations in normal individuals
Simple auditory hallucinosis
Complex auditory hallucinosis
Auditory hallucinations in psychiatric disorders: schizophrenia
Auditory hallucinations in neurologic disorders
Epilepsy
Traumatic brain injury
Musical hallucinosis
Secondary olfactory and gustatory hallucinations
Olfactory and gustatory hallucinations in psychiatric illness
Schizophrenia
Other psychiatric disorders
Cultural variables
Olfactory and gustatory hallucinations in neurological disorders
Epilepsy
Other neurological disorders
Secondary tactile hallucinations Tactile hallucinations in normal individuals
Tactile hallucinations in psychiatric disorders
Schizophrenia
Delusional parasitosis
Delirium
Tactile hallucinations in neurological disorders
Tactile hallucinations in substance abuse/withdrawal
Discussion
References
Section 2 The neurology of schizophrenia
Chapter 4 The neurologic examination in schizophrenia
Introduction
Review
Reflexes
Motor strength
Cranial nerves
Pupils
Oculomotor
Motor coordination
Hypokinetic (Parkinsonian) motor findings
Hyperkinetic (including choreoathetotic or Huntingtonian) motor findings
Gait
Sensory exam
Visual
Auditory
Olfactory
Tactile
Dorsal column sensory tests
Higher order sensory tests
Neurologic exam as an aid in detecting neuromedical etiologies
The significance of global impairment
Detecting specific etiologies of secondary schizophrenia
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Functional neuroimaging in schizophrenia
Brain function and schizophrenia
Electroencephalography, cerebral blood flow, and the earliest functional imaging of schizophrenia
Hypofrontality
Cerebral disconnectivity and schizophrenia
Aberrant regional recruitment under a task
PET and SPECT
fMRI
Resting disconnectivity
fMRI
EEG
Structural (volumetric) intercorrelations
Functional imaging correlates of clinical symptomatology
Receptor occupancy evaluation with PET
Conclusion and new directions
References
Section 3 Organic syndromes of schizophrenia
Chapter 6 Schizophrenia-like psychosis and epilepsy
Introductory caveats
Problems with definitions
The problem of heterogeneity
The problem of superficial similarity
The focus on seizures
Is there an affinity between epilepsy and SLP?
The promise of new insights
Categorization
Ictal psychosis
Postictal psychosis
Brief interictal psychosis
Psychosis and anticonvulsant drugs
Antipsychotic drugs and epilepsy
Are postictal and brief interictal psychoses distinct?
Chronic interictal psychosis
Evidence for association
Clinical features
Risk factors of chronic SLP with epilepsy
Age at onset, duration, and severity of epilepsy
Is greater risk of psychosis particular to temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE)?
Mediobasal or neocortical temporal lobe epilepsy?
Laterality of epileptic focus?
Sex
Family history
Premorbid personality
Postlobectomy psychosis
Neuroimaging studies
Neuropathological studies
Possible pathophysiological mechanisms for psychosis in epilepsy
Psychosis is a direct consequence of the epileptiform disturbance
Both psychosis and epilepsy are symptomatic of an underlying neuropathological or physiological dysfunction
Cortical dysgenesis hypothesis
Diffuse brain damage hypothesis
Imbalance of cortical excitation and inhibition
Composite model
Future directions
References
Chapter 7 Understanding the pathophysiology of schizophrenia through the looking glass of forced normalization
Introduction
Forced normalization in epilepsy – evolution of a concept
Forced normalization – clinical features and diagnosis
Clinical description
Diagnostic criteria
Putative neurobiological mechanisms
Limbic kindling
Role of neurotransmitters
Cannabinoid and opioid receptor systems
Channelopathy
Apoptosis and vascular dysfunction
The adenosine hypothesis
Implications for a neurobiological understanding of schizophrenia
References
Chapter 8 Substance-induced psychosis: an overview
Introduction
Definition
Research directions
Do drugs cause psychoses? If so, which drugs?
Epidemiological studies examining psychotic experience among substance abusers
Do substances differ in their association with psychotic symptoms?
Alcohol
Amphetamines
Cocaine
Opiates
Nicotine
Validity of the construct of substance-induced psychosis
Clinical description
Diagnostic stability, delimitation from other disorders, and family history
Susceptibility for developing SIP
Substance-related factors
Individual risk factors
Common neural substrate
Do drugs cause chronic psychoses or schizophrenia?
Diagnosis and treatment
Delirium
Intoxication
Withdrawal
Identifying SIP and primary psychosis associated with substance abuse
Treatment
Risk of violence and suicide
Future directions
References
Chapter 9 Stimulants and psychosis
Introduction
Epidemiology
Clinical picture of amphetamine and cocaine-induced psychotic states
Recent studies of amphetamine psychosis
Cocaine-induced psychosis
Follow-up studies
Biological studies
Mechanisms
Available insights into the management of stimulant-induced psychotic conditions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Psychotomimetic effects of PCP, LSD, and Ecstasy: pharmacological models of schizophrenia?
Human studies
Phencyclidine
Ketamine
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
Ecstasy
Animal studies
Animal modeling: principles and constraints
Animal models and controversy about the pharmacology of phencyclidine and its analogues
Changes in behavior and clinical biomarkers in PCP-related models
Increased regional brain activation in acute PCP-related animal models
Increased prefrontal glutamate in PCP-related animal models
Increased prefrontal neuronal firing in PCP-related animal models
GABAergic interneuron deficits in PCP-related animal models
Secondary monoaminergic system disturbances in PCP-related animal models
Drug development using PCP-related animal models
The PCP model of schizophrenia: an integration
Summary and conclusion
Note
References
Chapter 11 Schizophrenia secondary to cannabis use
Introduction
Cannabis use as a precipitant of psychosis
Longitudinal studies
The self-medication hypothesis
Intervention studies
Biological plausibility
Cannabis use and the exacerbation of schizophrenia
Future research directions
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 12 Toxic psychosis
Introduction
Clinical features of delirium
Epidemiology
General risk factors
General etiological factor
Delirium (toxic psychosis) due to commonly used drugs
Anticholinergics
Anticonvulsants
Antidepressants
Antiemetics
Antipsychotics
Antiparkinsonians
Benzodiazepines
Corticosteroids
Histamine H2 receptor antagonists
Opioids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Antibiotics
Pathogenesis of drug-induced toxic psychosis
Management
Implications for clinical practice
Summary and conclusions
Future research directions
References
Chapter 13 Schizophrenia-like psychosis and traumatic brain injury
Epidemiology
Case reports
Cross-sectional surveys
Case control studies
Studies examining the strength of the association
Studies that examined risk factors for schizophrenia following TBI
Cohort studies
Clinical presentation
Characteristics of head injury
Psychopathology
Diagnostic criteria
Course
Risk factors and pathophysiology
Are there specific neuroanatomical substrates of SLP-TBI?
Is there a specific cognitive syndrome underlying the development of SLP following TBI?
Are TBI patients who develop SLP predisposed to psychosis due to some pre-existing vulnerability?
Relationship with epilepsy?
Is age of TBI important?
Birth trauma and schizophrenia
Conclusion and future directions
References
Chapter 14 Cerebrovascular disease and psychosis
Introduction
Psychotic symptoms arising after stroke
A case report
Phenomenology of post-stroke psychosis
Prevalence of post-stroke psychosis
Mechanisms leading to post-stroke psychosis
Vascular dementia and psychosis
Cerebrovascular disease in delusional disorder and schizophrenia
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 Neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer’s Disease, fronto-temporal dementia) and schizophrenia-like psychosis
Introduction
Definition and clinical features
Psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer's Disease
Psychotic symptoms in fronto-temporal dementias
Prevalence and incidence
Risk factors and outcomes
Neurobiological factors
Neuropsychological profile
Genetic factors
Personality
Environment
Cognitive and functional decline, institutionalization, and mortality
Implications for clinical practice
Suggestions for future research
References
Chapter 16 Storage disorders and psychosis
Introduction
Lysosomal storage disorders
GM2 gangliosidosis type I: Tay-Sachs Disease
Niemann-Pick Disease type C
Cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis
Alpha mannosidosis
Adult neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis: Kufs’ Disease
A model for psychosis secondary to storage disorders: Niemann-Pick type C
Laboratory diagnosis of storage disorders
The treatment of psychosis in storage disorders
References
Chapter 17 Mitochondrial disorders and psychosis
Mitochondrial functions
Mitochondrial genetics
Maternal inheritance
Heteroplasmy/homoplasmy
Mitotic segregation
Role of autosomal genes on mitochondrial function
Clinical consequences of mitochondrial disorders
Mitochondrial disorders due to mitochondrial genome mutations
Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, stroke-like episodes syndrome
Myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers
Kearns-Sayre Syndrome
Other mitochondrial disorders
Mitochondrial disorders and schizophrenia-like psychosis
Mitochondrial disease with a psychotic illness suggestive of schizophrenia
Mitochondrial disorders with psychiatric symptoms that were related to a delirium or dementia
Mitochondrial disorders with a family history of schizophrenia
Wolfram Disease
Other cases
Conclusions
References
Chapter 18 Psychosis associated with leukodystrophies
Introduction
Metachromatic leukodystrophy
Genetics and pathobiology
Prevalence
Clinical features and neuroimaging
Age of onset and course of illness
Psychiatric features
Neurological features
Neuroimaging
Investigations
Making the diagnosis
Treatment
Adrenoleukodystrophy
Genetics and pathobiology
Prevalence
Psychiatric features
Neurological features and endocrine abnormalities
Neuroimaging
Investigations
Treatment
Mitochondrial disorders
Krabbe's Disease
Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease
Cerebrotendinous Xanthomatosis
Alexander's Disease
Membranous lipodystrophy
Principles of management for patients with inherited leukodystrophies
Monitoring the course of illness
Treatment of psychiatric illness
Summary and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 19 Normal pressure hydrocephalus
Introduction
History of the association
Schizophrenia and ventricular enlargement
Clinical presentation of normal pressure hydrocephalus
Schizophrenia-like psychosis and hydrocephalus
Delayed or missed diagnoses
Pathogenesis of psychotic symptoms in normal pressure hydrocephalus
Summary and conclusions
References
Chapter 20 Brain tumors
Introduction
Definitions and diagnostic criteria
Tumor classification
Diagnostic criteria
Epidemiology
Clinical manifestations
Association with tumor location and laterality
Association with tumor type
Other tumor features influencing symptom formation
Nature of psychotic symptoms
Diagnostic evaluation
History and examination
Neuroimaging
Other
Interrelationships
Treatment of psychosis in setting of brain tumor
Summary and conclusions
Implications for clinical practice
Suggestions for future research
References

Other books

Burning Midnight by Loren D. Estleman

Dead Man Dancing by Marcia Talley

The End of Diabetes by Joel Fuhrman

Training Her Curves - Geneva (A BBW Billionaire Domination and Submission Romance) by Christa Wick

Toxic Filth - 4 Dirty Stories by AE Publications

The Redemption by S. L. Scott

The Inconvenient Bride by J. A. Fraser

The Lady in the Tower: The Fall of Anne Boleyn by Alison Weir

Mystery on Stage by Gertrude Chandler Warner

Saving Juliet by Suzanne Selfors