The Chimp and the River: How AIDS Emerged from an African Forest (20 page)

Guinea-Bissau, 32, 38, 42

Hahn, Beatrice, 111

and Gombe SIV research, 112–25

in search for origins of HIV-1, 61–64, 67–70, 72, 73, 109, 128–29, 138

Haiti, blood plasma trade in, 134–36

Haitians, AIDS in, 19, 22, 133–38

Hamilton, William, 55, 56–58

Harvard School of Public Health, 28

Haseltine, William, 53

Hemo Caribbean, 135–36

hemophiliacs, AIDS in, 23, 24, 138

hepatitis B, 20–21, 127

Heymann, David, 53

Hirsch, Vanessa M., 37–38

HIV (human immunodeficiency viruses):

discovery of, 24

as retroviruses, 24–28

SIV as progenitor of, 29–31

HIV-1, 32–33

evolutionary divergence of, 59–61, 109, 125, 129

genome of, 33, 41–42

group N, 42, 125

group O, 42, 50, 125

lethality of, 124–25

mutation of, 59–60, 88, 131–32

pathogenic mechanism of, 62

recombination in, 131

search for reservoir of, 38–41

see also
AIDS

HIV-1, group M, 42, 44, 50, 107, 109, 118

chimpanzees as reservoir of, 39–41, 62

DRC60 gene sequence of, 46–50, 58, 59–60, 72, 131, 138

geographical dissemination of, 131–39

SIV
_cpz
as progenitor of, 29–31, 62, 63, 65, 66–67, 68–69, 80, 125

subtype B of, 132–39

subtypes of, 132

ZR59 gene sequence of, 46, 59–60, 72, 108, 131, 138

HIV-2, 32–33, 125

genome of, 33, 34, 108

geographical dissemination of, 38–39

groups of, 42, 43, 132

transmissibility of, 38

virulence of, 38

as zoonosis, 38, 50

HIV spillovers, 38, 40, 41–43, 46, 50–51, 60–61, 62

Cameroon as locus of, 62, 65, 66–73, 79, 80, 108–9, 125

Central Africa as locus of, 62

cut-hunter hypothesis of, 50–51, 68–69, 83–91, 96–108, 112, 125, 126

mechanics of, 67–108, 112, 125

oral polio vaccine (OPV) hypothesis of, 51–56, 60–61, 129

homosexuals, male, AIDS in, 17–18, 19, 24, 44, 139

Hooper, Edward, 54–55, 129

host-virus relationship, virulence and, 31

humans, ecosystem disruption by, 75–77, 82

human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs), 25–26, 29

see also
HIV

iatrogenic infections, 53

immunodeficiency, 17, 19

“Increased Mortality and AIDS-like Immunopathology in Wild Chimpanzees Infected with SIV
_cpz
” (Keele et al.), 124–25

India, AIDS in, 132

infectious disease:

basic reproduction rate in,
see R0

dead-end hosts and, 128

thresholds of, 128

see also
epidemics;
specific diseases and pathogens

Institut Pasteur, 24

intravenous drug users:

AIDS in, 23, 24

hepatitis B in, 21

Jamot, Eugène, 127, 128

Jane Goodall Institute, 115, 119–20

Jolo (boatman), 92, 93, 94

Journal of Virology
, 110

Justin, Ekeme, 83

Kabila, Laurent, 56

Kabongo, Jean-Marie M., 47–49, 60

Kadéï River, 75–76

Kako people, 77

Kanki, Phyllis, 28–33, 54

Kaposi’s sarcoma, 18–19, 20, 22

Keele, Brandon F., 64–67, 69, 72, 80, 119–20, 122, 124

Kenya, 33, 34

Kibale National Park, Uganda, 113–14

Kika, Cameroon, 82–83, 92

Kinshasa, University of, 46, 47, 55, 56, 60

Kinshasa (Léopoldville), DRC, 22

emergence of AIDS pandemic in, 68–69, 71–72, 108–9, 125–26, 129–33

Kisangani, DRC, 52, 56–57, 132

Koprowski, Hilary, 52, 53–54, 55, 56

Korber, Bette, 46

Laboratory of Tumor Cell Biology, 25

LAGA (Last Great Ape Organization), 73–74

LAV (lymphadenopathy virus), 26

see also
HIV

Leakey, Louis, 116

Léopoldville,
see
Kinshasa, DRC

leprosy, 35–36, 126–27

Lesotho, 132

Levy, Jay A., 27

Lobeke, Cameroon, 66

Lobeke National Park, Cameroon, 76, 80

logging, 75–77, 82

Lonsdorf, Elizabeth, 122

Los Angeles, Calif., early AIDS cases in, 17–18, 21, 22, 139

Lumumba, Patrice, 133

Lumumbashi, DRC, 132

lymphocytes, 137

depleted levels of, 18, 19, 122–23, 125

see also
T cells

macaques:

rhesus (
M. mulatta
), 36, 37, 52

SIV in, 29–30

SV40 in, 52

malaria, 126

cause of,
see Plasmodium

falciparum (malignant), 57

Mambele, Cameroon, 66, 79–80

“Manchester sailor,” 44–45

mangabeys:

red-capped, 110, 111

sooty (
Cercocebus atys
), 34–37, 38, 40, 43, 50

Marburg virus, 139

Marx, Preston, 129

Mbah, Neville, 73, 82, 83, 94

Mexico, 135

Miami, Fla., early AIDS cases in, 19, 22

Mobutu Sese Seko, 56, 134

molecular phylogenetics, 61–62, 109, 138

Moloundou, Cameroon, 82, 99

Montagnier, Luc, 24–27, 28, 32

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
, 18, 19, 23, 136

Moyen-Congo,
see
Congo, Republic of the

Mozambique, 132

Muller, Martin, 113–14, 118

Munga, Albert, 80–81

Murphey-Corb, Michael Anne, 37

mutation:

of HIV-1, 59–60, 88, 131–32

natural selection and, 88

Muyembe, J. J., 55–56, 58, 60

Mviri, Max, 73, 82–83, 92, 93–96

Mycobacterium leprae
, 35–36

National Cancer Institute, 25

National Geographic
, 117

natural selection, mutation and, 88

Nature
, 34, 60, 62

ndumbas,
see
free women

New England Journal of Medicine
, 18

New England Regional Primate Research Center, 28–29

New Iberia, La., 35

New York, N.Y., early AIDS cases in, 18–19, 21

New York Times
, 135, 136

Ngbala, Cameroon, 90, 99

Ngoko River, 81–82, 87, 89, 90, 92–93

Njiforti, Hanson, 76, 77

Nki National Park, Cameroon, 76

“Noble Goals, Unforeseen Consequences” (Pepin), 126

noninvasive sample collecting, 63–64, 113, 117

Nottingham, University of, 111, 112

opportunity, spillover and, 70, 72, 87, 133, 138

oral candidiasis, 17–18, 22, 139

oral polio vaccine (OPV) hypothesis, 51–56, 60–61, 129

Origins of AIDS, The
(Pepin), 126

Oubangui-Chari, FEA, 127

Oubangui River, 62

Ouesso, ROC, 81, 82, 83, 90, 92, 93–97, 100–102

pathogenicity,
see
virulence

Patient Zero (Gaëtan Dugas), 19–21, 44, 85, 139

Peeters, Martine, 39–41, 65, 68, 111, 118

penicillin, 130

Pepin, Jacques, 126, 127–30, 133, 134, 135, 136

Peterson, Dale, 76

phylogeny, of SIV and HIV, 66–67

Pitchenik, Arthur E., 137

plasmapheresis, 134–36

Plasmodium
,
P. falciparum
, 57

see also
malaria

“
Pneumocystis
Pneumonia—Los Angeles” (Gottlieb), 18

pneumonia,
Pneumocystis carinii
, 17–18, 19, 20, 22, 29, 44, 137

poliomyelitis:

vaccine for, 51–56, 60–61, 129

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, 45, 64

population density, 126

Port-au-Prince, Haiti, 134, 135

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
, 136

prostitutes, 31–32, 70–71, 126, 130, 132

see also
free women

protein receptors, 85

R0
(basic reproduction rate), of AIDS, 69, 70, 72, 87, 108

rabies, 139

Raphael, Jane, 120–21

Rask, Grethe, 22, 44

recombination:

in HIV-1, 131

in SIV, 111–12

red-capped mangabeys, 110, 111

retroviruses:

characteristics of, 24, 85

HIV as, 24–28

rhesus macaque (
Macaca mulatta
), 36, 37, 52

River, The: A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS
(Hooper), 54–55

RNA:

in retroviruses, 24, 85

viral, 58, 59, 64, 118

RNAlater, 64, 121

Rolling Stone
, 53, 54

Royal Society, 55, 56, 129

Rwanda, 52

Sabin, Albert B., 52

Salk, Jonas, 52

Salk vaccine, 52

San Francisco, Calif., early AIDS cases in, 20, 21, 27

Sangha River, 68, 69, 80, 81, 87, 90, 93, 103, 125, 127

Santiago, Mario L., 63, 68, 113, 118, 119

Science
, 25, 26, 29, 30, 63, 68

Senegal, 31–33, 34, 35, 38

sexual mores, AIDS and, 70, 109, 126

Sharp, Paul, 111

Shilts, Randy, 20, 21, 136, 139

simian immunovirus (SIV), 29–32

in African green monkeys (SIV
_agm
), 30–32, 33–34, 37

genome of, 33–34, 109, 111

in greater spot-nosed monkeys (SIV
_gsn
), 110, 111

in macaques (SIV
_mac
), 36–37

prevalence rates of, 66

recombination in, 111–12

in red-capped mangabeys, 110, 111

in sooty mangabeys (SIV
_sm
), 34–38, 40, 43, 50

simian immunovirus (SIV), in chimpanzees (SIV
_cpz
), 37, 40–41, 43, 52–53, 79, 85

age of, 111

Gombe study of, 112–25

as HIV-1 progenitor, 29–31, 62, 63, 65, 66–67, 68–69, 80, 88, 125

sexual transmission of, 119

vertical transmission of, 119

virulence of, 109–10, 111, 112

sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis), 108, 126–29

smallpox, 51

sooty mangabey (
Cercocebus atys
), 34–37, 38, 40, 43, 50

South Africa, 34, 132

spillover, opportunity and, 70, 72, 87, 133, 138

see also specific diseases

Stanley Pool, 72

Stanleyville,
see
Kisangani, DRC

streptomycin, 130

susceptible populations, increased density of, 126

SV40 virus, 52

Swaziland, 132

Sylvain (boatman), 83, 92, 93, 94

syphilis, 129, 130

syringes, reuse of, AIDS and, 23, 24, 108, 126–31, 139

Tanzania, 63

T cells (thymus-dependent lymphocytes), 18, 22, 25, 85

Tchuialeu, Moïse, 73, 83

Terio, Karen, 121–23, 124

tetanus, 51

Teuwen, Dirk, 56

T-helper cells, 25

thresholds, of infectious diseases, 128

Tio people, 105–6

TMRCA (time to most recent common ancestor), 60

transmissibility:

blood-borne, 20–21, 24

human-to-human, 20–21

vertical (mother-to-offspring), 119

see also
spillover;
specific diseases and pathogens

Trypanosoma brucei
, 126

trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), 108, 126–29

tryparsamide, 126, 128

tsetse flies, 126, 129

tuberculosis (TB), 137

UCLA Medical Center, 17–18

UNESCO, 133

urine sampling, 63, 113, 114, 117

USAMRIID (US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases), 65

virions, 85, 86

virulence, and evolution of host-virus relationship, 31

see also specific pathogens

Virus
(Montagnier), 24

viruses:

RNA, 58, 59, 64, 118

transmissibility of,
see
transmissibility

virions of, 85, 86

virulence of,
see
virulence

Vivian (Buy’em-Sell’em), 92–93, 94

Voyager, 88–91, 96–108

World Health Organization (WHO), 133

World Wildlife Fund, 74

Worobey, Michael, 49–50, 56–62, 69, 109, 128–29, 136–38

Wrangham, Richard, 113, 114, 118

Yaoundé, Cameroon, 73–75

yaws, 130

Yokadouma, Cameroon, 76–78

Yolanda (chimpanzee), 120–25

Zaire,
see
Congo, Democratic Republic of the

Zaireanisation, 134

Zaire ebolavirus
,
see
Ebola virus

Zambia, 132

Zhu, Tuofu, 45–46

ZR59, 46, 50, 59–60, 72, 108, 131, 138

The Chimp and the River
was extracted and adapted from
Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Pandemic

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