The Dictionary of Homophobia (99 page)

Amnesty International and the International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission report on the severe lack of human rights in general in most of these countries, and the lack of rights concerning homosexuality in particular. Foreigners perceived as being gay are authorized to leave the country if they wish to avoid punishment. In Qatar, many foreign workers were thus expelled in 1997 because of their perceived homosexuality. In 2001, fifty-two men were arrested in Egypt for “debauchery” and tried under a special “emergency court,” denying their right to an appeal under human rights law. Moreover, in Iran, the death sentence has been pronounced many times in recent years for men found guilty of homosexual acts. Similarly, in Saudi Arabia, three men accused of sodomy were decapitated in January of 2002. In Afghanistan (which lies on the periphery of what is defined as the Middle East), before the fall of the Taliban regime, Mohammad Hassan, Governor of Kandahar, declared, “We have a dilemma: according to certain wise men, we must take these people to the roof of the highest building and throw them over the side, but for others, we must dig a hole next to a wall, place them inside the hole, and knock the wall over in order to bury them alive.” It was this second solution that was chosen on February 25, 1998, for three men accused of sodomy; a military tank knocked a stone wall over top of them. Miraculously, they survived their many injuries, and in his great goodness, Mullah Omar granted them his mercy (although two of them died the next day). However, in another incident on March 22, Abdul Sami, aged eighteen, and Bismillah, twenty-two, were less fortunate: they died under the rubble.

Charged with “debauchery with men,” fifty-two Egyptians were arrested on May 11, 2001 in a nightclub. Egyptian legislation provides for up to five years in prison for such a “crime.”

The precision of Mohammad Hassan’s ideas on the various forms of punishment possible for homosexuals was echoed by Ayatollah Musava Ardelsili of Iran. During a speech at the University of Tehran, he declared,

For homosexuals, Islam has prescribed the most severe punishments. After guilt has been established according to the dictates of
sharia
, the individual must be seized, be kept standing, and divided in two with a sword to either cut off his head, or split him completely in two. He (or she) will fall…. After his death, a pyre must be prepared, the body placed on it and set on fire to burn it, or brought to the top of a mountain and thrown from a cliff. Then the body parts must be collected and burned. Or a hole must be dug, a fire started in it and he must be thrown in alive. We have no such punishments for other crimes.

Obviously, the worst doesn’t always happen, and
discretion
on the part of homosexuals generally allows them to avoid punishments prescribed by the law. But it is clear that these conditions often create a climate of constant anguish. As for those who adopt a more visible gay or lesbian identity, they often attempt to flee their native country in order to escape familial and social pressure. In this way, many Palestinian homosexuals seek refuge in Israel as a result of death threats received from family or authorities. Many Muslims have sought political asylum in the West on the basis of their homosexuality, but as Western immigration laws are becoming more restrictive, most are sent back to their country. In reality, these experiences represent only the tip of the iceberg, since instances of
discrimination
and harassment on the basis of sexual orientation are essentially hidden due to the taboo surrounding the subject.

With regard to hospitalization and forced
treatment
of homosexuals, information is rarer still. The fact is usually kept secret, but the practice is nonetheless admitted, at least in the Palestinian territories where many people were hospitalized in order to change their sexual orientation.

The situation in Iran is particular: a few decades ago, during the time when the country was more open to Western influences, the attitude toward gays and lesbians was more “favorable” than in other Arab countries. With the Islamist revolution, however, the prohibition against homosexuality has become more rigorous, the punishments more violent. At the same time, many of the political parties in exile have expressed their support for gay and lesbian rights.

In Muslim nations of the Middle East, all publications must endure some form of censorship. Publications concerning homosexuality are censored in Egypt and in Kuwait, as are Internet sites in Jordan and the United Arab Emirates. In Lebanon, the owner of an Internet service provider was prosecuted because he had hosted a gay website, and the director of the local Association for Human Rights who came to his aid was also prosecuted.

Turkey & Cyprus
In Cyprus, the population is made up of Greek and Turkish communities. The Greeks are, for the most part,
Orthodox
Christians, and the Turks are Muslim. The Church of Cyprus, largely conservative, exercises great influence over social issues such as sexuality, and its leaders have violently opposed homosexuality. In both Cyprus and Turkey, religion plays an important role in every aspect of social life, but Western influences are also felt rather strongly. Social attitudes in these countries are generally more liberal than in the Muslim states, and the rules concerning sexuality appear to be less strict. As a result, the segregation of the sexes is rarer in Turkey than in Arab countries, and its socio-cultural climate favors the development of gay and lesbian identities, more or less comparable to those in Europe and North America.

Turkish society has a mix of both Western and Eastern standards for sexuality in general, and for homosexuality in particular. Huseyin Tapinc, who has written on male homosexuality in Turkey, distinguishes four types: 1) the heterosexual male who practices mutual masturbation with another man, but refuses all oral or anal sex with him; 2) the heterosexual male who always maintains the active role in relations with passive homosexuals, thus not endangering his heterosexual identity; 3) the homosexual male who has relations with a “passive” homosexual (contrary to the preceding types, in this case both partners more or less adopt a gay identity); and 4) the male who definitively assumes a gay identity, and for whom distinctions between active and passive do not hold any social pertinence.

In Cyprus, there are numerous LGBT beaches, bars, and discotheques, even if most of them are not exclusively gay. There is also a website (Archimedes) containing information on various types of LGBT services. Since 1993, there is also the Cypriot Gay Liberation Movement, which has actively fought to modify antigay laws. However, in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, a separatist republic located in the northern region of the island of Cyprus (and which is only recognized by Turkey), homosexuality remains illegal.

Since the 1970s, there has been a visible gay subculture in major cities in Turkey, notably Istanbul. Areas where gays and lesbians can congregate include stores, restaurants, hotels, sports venues, and cinemas; some are exclusively gay, others not. The most important gay organization in Turkey, Lambda, was created in 1993; it has a website, organizes weekly get-togethers, and publishes a monthly magazine. Further, the democratic and radical Green Party in Turkey has supported the gay and lesbian movement there since the 80s, and has been in favor of promoting HIV prevention, which requires a growing vigilance. Turkish homosexuals are often able to resist the pressure to get married and even reveal their homosexuality to their families. Parents sometimes learn to accept their child’s homosexuality, but there are still many who cut off all ties to their child because of their sexual orientation.

Cyprus has experienced a major evolution with regard to homosexuality in recent years. Homosexuality was only decriminalized in 1998, and only because Cyprus stood to lose its prospective membership to the European Union if it did not; prior to this, men prosecuted for this offense risked up to fourteen years in prison. The decriminalization nonetheless created a discriminatory situation on the age of consent in relation to heterosexuals; it would not be until 2002, under pressure again from the European Union, that a new universal age of consent was established at seventeen years of age. In Turkey, homosexuality has been decriminalized for many years, however in both countries, only so long as it is behind closed doors; when it is expressed in public, it is perceived as indecent and can be pursued legally under one pretense or another.

Moreover, despite their legal status in Cyprus, homosexuals are often the victims of human rights violations. Scenes of physical homophobic
violence
are widespread, and gays often fear losing their jobs. There is at least one known case whereby a man was refused entry into the Cypriot
army
because of his sexual orientation. Furthermore, even the suspicion of homosexuality appears to be sufficient grounds to refuse an immigrant, and thus send him back to his country.

Similarly, despite the legality of homosexuality in Turkey, authorities display no
tolerance
whatsoever on the question. In Istanbul in 1993, a gay and lesbian conference was forbidden, and the foreign delegates were arrested. In 1994, in a city in southern Turkey, public kissing between two men was officially banned. The Turkish army does not admit homosexuals into its ranks. And at the end of the 80s, the
police
beat and arrested many homosexuals, many of whom were subsequently sent to psychiatric institutions; moreover, the police took it upon themselves to inform these individuals’ employers, who fired them. Sex changes have been legal in Turkey since 1988, and transsexuals and transvestites are quite visible in Istanbul, which is behind the motivation for serious police assaults against them; in many instances, their homes were torched and the individuals beaten and arrested. By the end of the 90s, many international human rights organizations denounced the use of torture by Turkish police. As for the Turkish media, their attitude on homosexuality has been rather ambiguous. Homosexuals are often depicted in an unfavorable light, and information is sometimes censored by authorities; many books on homosexuality have been banned.

Israel
Israel’s population is composed mostly of Jews, but includes a not insignificant number of Muslims and Christians. The numerous immigrants have brought with them values from around the world. The Jewish community in Israel is very heterogeneous, complex, and dynamic, and it is difficult to discuss it in general terms. Non-religious Jews have been influenced by social evolutions in the West; in secular areas, sexuality, homosexuality, and issues related to
AIDS
can be discussed publicly, and attitudes on sex and gender are relatively close to those in the West.

Religion is a central fact of life in Israel, but the nation’s values and norms are surprisingly diverse. To a certain degree, the majority of Israelis consider themselves to be believers. The most conservative positions are held by the ultra-Orthodox: they adhere strictly to Jewish laws, which accord homosexuality an inferior status. That being said, they live apart from the rest of Israeli society, in communities where there is a clear segregation between the sexes and where roles are assigned according to gender. In these ultra-Orthodox communities, sexuality is not discussed in public, and remains an intimate subject.

Arab Israelis also make up a separate community, and constitute the country’s largest minority. They are partly Muslim and partly Christian. In Arab Israeli communities, sexual segregation is less strict than in Muslim countries, but the separation of the sexes and homosociability are still a reality. Social modernization is still possible, but attitudes toward homosexuality remain very conservative, comparable to those in Muslim states and, to a certain degree, Orthodox Jewish communities.

During the last decades, however, gays and lesbians in Israel have succeeded in obtaining a more visible place in the public sphere. Public demonstrations such as those organized by the Association of Gays, Lesbians, Bisexuals and Transgenders (AGUDAH), the Jerusalem Open House, and the Israel Center for Social and Economic Progress give the impression of progress made in improving the general public’s attitude toward homosexuals. However, harassment and intimidation are not uncommon occurrences.

Transgenders have organized themselves within the LGBT community. Many transsexual singers enjoy large audiences, but most limit themselves to smaller, more closed circles for fear of reprisals. Sex changes are legal, but regulations are so strict that individuals rarely undergo surgery.

Gay and lesbian issues are openly debated throughout secular Jewish media, often in a favorable light; conversely, in religious media, homonegativism is the norm, so much so that these issues are never discussed.

Separation between state and religion is clearer in Israel than in most Muslim countries, but it is not complete. There are certainly some openly gay or lesbian politicians, and heterosexuals who openly support gay and lesbian rights, however, by the same token, many political and religious leaders have spoken out against homosexuality. It is clear that the political and judicial systems in Israel are subjected to constant pressure from conservative elements in Israeli society.