The Forest Unseen: A Year's Watch in Nature (35 page)

FitzGibbon, C. D., and J. H. Fanshawe. 1988. “Stotting in Thomson’s gazelles: an honest signal of condition.”
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
23: 69–74.

Maloof, J. 2006. “Breathe.”
Conservation in Practice
7: 5–6.

October 14th—Samara

Green, D. S. 1980. “The terminal velocity and dispersal of spinning samaras.”
American Journal of Botany
67: 1218–24.

Horn, H. S., R. Nathan, and S. R. Kaplan. 2001. “Long-distance dispersal of tree seeds by wind.”
Ecological Research
16: 877–85.

Lentink, D., W. B. Dickson, J. L. van Leewen, and M. H. Dickinson. 2009. “Leading-edge vortices elevate lift of autorotating plant seeds.”
Science
324: 1438–40.

Sipe, T. W., and A. R. Linnerooth. 1995. “Intraspecific variation in samara morphology and flight behavior in
Acer saccharinum
(Aceraceae).”
American Journal of Botany
82: 1412–19.

October 29th—Faces

Darwin, C. 1872.
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
. Reprint, 1965. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lorenz, K. 1971.
Studies in Animal and Human Behaviour
. Translated by R. Martin. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Randall, J. A. 2001. “Evolution and function of drumming as communication in mammals.”
American Zoologist
41: 1143–56.

Todorov, A., C. P. Said, A. D. Engell, and N. N. Oosterhof. 2008. “Understanding evaluation of faces on social dimensions.”
Trends in Cognitive Sciences
12: 455–60.

November 5th—Light

Caine, N. G., D. Osorio, and N. I. Mundy. 2009. “A foraging advantage for dichromatic marmosets (
Callithrix geoffroyi
) at low light intensity.”
Biology Letters
6: 36–38.

Craig, C. L., R. S. Weber, and G. D. Bernard. 1996. “Evolution of predator-prey systems: Spider foraging plasticity in response to the visual ecology of prey.”
American Naturalist
147: 205–29.

Endler, J. A. 2006. “Disruptive and cryptic coloration.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences
273: 2425–26.

———. 1997. “Light, behavior, and conservation of forest dwelling organisms.” In
Behavioral Approaches to Conservation in the Wild
, edited by J. R. Clemmons and R. Buchholz, 329–55. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

King, R. B., S. Hauff, and J. B. Phillips. 1994. “Physiological color change in the green treefrog: Responses to background brightness and temperature.”
Copeia
1994: 422–32.

Merilaita, S., and J. Lind. 2005. “Background-matching and disruptive coloration, and the evolution of cryptic coloration.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences
272: 665–70.

Mollon, J. D., J. K. Bowmaker, and G. H. Jacobs. 1984. “Variations of color-vision in a New World primate can be explained by polymorphism of retinal photopigments.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences
222: 373–99.

Morgan, M. J., A. Adam, and J. D. Mollon. 1992. “Dichromats detect colour-camouflaged objects that are not detected by trichromats.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences
248: 291–95.

Schaefer, H. M., and N. Stobbe. 2006. “Disruptive coloration provides camouflage independent of background matching.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences
273: 2427–32.

Stevens, M., I. C. Cuthill, A. M. M. Windsor, and H. J. Walker. 2006. “Disruptive contrast in animal camouflage.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B: Biological Sciences
273: 2433–38.

November 15th—Sharp-shinned Hawk

Bildstein, K. L., and K. Meyer. 2000. “Sharp-shinned Hawk (
Accipiter striatus
),” The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bna.482.

Hughes, N. M., H. S. Neufeld, and K. O. Burkey. 2005. “Functional role of anthocyanins in high-light winter leaves of the evergreen herb
Galax urceolata
.”
New Phytologist
168: 575–87.

Lin, E. 2005.
Production and Processing of Small Seeds for Birds
. Agricultural and Food Engineering Technical Report 1. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Marden, J. H. 1987. “Maximum lift production during takeoff in flying animals.”
Journal of Experimental Biology
130: 235–38.

Zhang, J., G. Harbottle, C. Wang, and Z. Kong. 1999. “Oldest playable musical instruments found at Jiahu early Neolithic site in China.”
Nature
401: 366–68.

November 21st—Twigs

Canadell, J. G., C. Le Quere, M. R. Raupach, C. B. Field, E. T. Buitenhuis, P. Ciais, T. J. Conway, N. P. Gillett, R. A. Houghton, and G. Marland. 2007. “Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO
₂
growth from economic activity, carbon intensity,
and efficiency of natural sinks.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA
104: 18866–70.

Dixon R. K., A. M. Solomon, S. Brown, R. A. Houghton, M. C. Trexier, and J. Wisniewski. 1994. “Carbon pools and flux of global forest ecosystems.”
Science
263: 185–90.

Hopkins, W. G. 1999.
Introduction to Plant Physiology
. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Howard, J. L. 2004.
Ailanthus altissima
. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html
.

Innes, R. J. 2009.
Paulownia tomentosa
. In: Fire Effects Information System.
www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/pautom/all.html
.

Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H. L. Miller (eds.). 2007.
Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Woodbury, P. B., J. E. Smith, and L. S. Heath 2007. “Carbon sequestration in the U.S. forest sector from 1990 to 2010.”
Forest Ecology and Management
241: 14–27.

December 3rd—Litter

Coleman, D. C., and D. A. Crossley, Jr. 1996.
Fundamentals of Soil Ecology
. San Diego: Academic Press.

Crawford, J. W., J. A. Harris, K. Ritz, and I. M. Young. 2005. “Towards an evolutionary ecology of life in soil.”
Trends in Ecology and Evolution
20: 81–87.

Horton, T. R., and T. D. Bruns. 2001. “The molecular revolution in ectomycorrhizal ecology: peeking into the black-box.”
Molecular Ecology
10: 1855–71.

Wolfe, D. W. 2001.
Tales from the Underground: A Natural History of Subterranean Life
. Reading, MA: Perseus Publishing.

December 6th—Underground Bestiary

Budd, G. E., and M. J. Telford. 2009. “The origin and evolution of arthropods.”
Nature
457: 812–17.

Hopkin, S. P. 1997.
Biology of the Springtails (Insecta: Collembola)
. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Regier, J. C., J. W. Shultz, A. Zwick, A. Hussey, B. Ball, R. Wetzer, J. W. Martin, and C. W. Cunningham. 2010. “Arthropod relationships revealed by phylogenomic analysis of nuclear protein-coding sequences.”
Nature
463: 1079–83.

Ruppert, E. E., R. S. Fox, and R. D. Barnes. 2004.
Invertebrate Zoology: A Functional Evolutionary Approach
. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning.

December 26th—Treetops

Weiss, R. 2003. “Administration opens Alaska’s Tongass forest to logging.”
The Washington Post
, December 24, page A16.

December 31st—Watching

Bender, D. J., E. M. Bayne, and R. M. Brigham. 1996. “Lunar condition influences coyote (
Canis latrans
) howling.”
American Midland Naturalist
136: 413–17.

Gese, E. M., and R. L. Ruff. 1998. “Howling by coyotes (
Canis latrans
): variation among social classes, seasons, and pack sizes.”
Canadian Journal of Zoology
76: 1037–43.

Epilogue

Davis, M. B., ed. 1996.
Eastern Old-Growth Forest: Prospects for Rediscovery and Recovery
. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Leopold, A. 1949.
A Sand County Almanac, and Sketches Here and There
. New York: Oxford University Press.

Linnaeus, C. [1707–1788], quoted as epigram in Nicholas Culpeper,
The English Physician,
edited by E. Sibly. Reprint, 1800. London: Satcherd.

White, G. 1788–89.
The Natural History of Selbourne
, edited by R. Mabey. Reprint, 1977. London: Penguin Books.

actinomycetes, 223

Agkistrodon contortrix,
137

Ailanthus altissima,
220

alarm waves, 184–87

Alexander the Great, 6

algae, and lichens, 2, 3–4

aluminum, 225

amino acids, 105

anemone, rue, 54, 60, 72

antelopes, 32

ants:

and caterpillars, 170–72

fire, 92

as nectar robbers, 70–71

and seed dispersal, 90–91, 92

aphids, 104, 105

Archaefructus,
60

arthropods, 233

artiodactyl, 25

Ashe, Thomas, 31

ash trees, 191

astrology, 48–49

babesiosis, 121

background noise, 185

bacteria:

and leaf litter, 223

and lichens, 2, 3–4

balsam fir, 108

bears, giant herbivorous, 32

bees, 57–60, 86

Bergmann’s rule, 13, 19, 20

bird feeders, 212

birds:

balance of weight and power in, 209–10

and calcium, 114–16

disease-carrying, 111–13, 116

feeding behavior, 18

flight songs of, 82

flocking behavior, 18

migration of, 19–20, 169, 173, 180–83

plumage of, 202

and predators, 154

roosting, 19

songs of, 82–84

at sundown, 240

at sunrise, 81–85

wing design of, 210–11

winter survival of, 15–16, 17, 18–20, 22

see also
specific birds

bison, 32

Blake, William, “Auguries of Innocence,” xii

bloodroot, 102

blue jays, 82

bobcats, 34

Böhme, Jakob, 47–48

bombyliid “bee” flies, 60, 61

bud scars, 215, 220, 221

buttercups, 72

butterflies, 171

calcium, 114–16

camouflage, 203–4

canopy openings, 219

carbon, 220–21

cardinals, 83

caterpillars, 103, 108, 169–73

ant attacks on, 170–72

of blue butterflies, 171

tussock moth, 170, 172, 173

wasp larvae in, 143–45

cellulose, 25, 28

centipedes, 56

cheetahs, 34

chemicals, defensive, 186–87

chickadees:

Carolina, 12–20, 21–22, 81

eyesight of, 16–17

fat stores of, 18

flocking behavior, 18

habitat needed to sustain, 19

roosts of, 19

shivering in the cold, 14, 15, 20

winter survival of, 15–16, 17, 18–20

chickweed, 68–70, 72

chipmunks, 184, 186, 187

chlorophyll, 23

cicadas, 162, 163

cicely, 200–201, 206

coarse woody debris (fallen trees), 45, 100, 216–18

collembolans, 232–33

competition, 106

consciousness, 145

copperheads, 137

cowbirds, 83

coyotes, 150–55, 239, 240–41

crickets, 5–6, 161, 194, 195

crows, 83

cuckoos, 162, 181–82

Culex
mosquito, 111

Cumberland Plateau, xiii, 95

cyanobacteria, 4

Darwin, Charles, 32–33, 144–45

The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals,
196–97

On the Origin of Species,
193

deer, 25–30

alarms of, 184–85, 186

extinct species of, 32

modern phobia toward, 31–32

overbrowsing by, 31

population growth of, 30, 153–55

seeds transported by, 90–92

tick-borne diseases in, 30

Dianthus,
72

dichromats, 204–5

digitalis, 165

Doctrine of Signatures, 48, 49

domestication, 197–98

earthquake, 93–96

earthstars, 156, 159

earthworms, 234

efts, 147–50

eggs, 134

Ehrlichiosis, 121

elaiosome, 88, 91, 92

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 217

enchytraeids, 234

English peppered moth, 203

environmental activism, 244

ethyl mercaptan, 176

evergreens, 23

evolution:

and competition, 106

and Darwin, 32–33, 144–45, 193

fossil evidence, 32–34, 60–61

natural selection, 91, 92, 98, 129–30, 137, 167

and variation, 193

expectation, 245

extinctions, 32–34, 66

faces, 196–97

ferns, 122–26

Christmas, 23–24, 122–24, 126

fiddleheads, 123

lily-pad, 124, 125–26

rattlesnake, 124–26

spores of, 123–24, 125

fir, balsam, 108

fireflies, 137–40

flies:

bombyliid (“bee flies”), 60, 61

tachinid, 163

flowers:

in April, 68–72

fertilization of, 57–58, 60–62, 68–72

seeds of, 88–92

spring ephemerals, 54–56, 57–62

of trees, 87

footprints, 25–34

forest:

benchmark studies of, 31

ecological studies of, 31

temperate, 32

fossil flowers, 60–61

fossils, 32–34

foxgloves, 165

fungi, 131–36

earthstars, 156, 159

feeding, 132

and hyphae, 226–27

and lichens, 2–3, 4

and mycorrhizae, 227–28

and plants, 226–29

reproduction, 133–36

and roots, 226–29