EIGHT: THE INCREDIBLE SHRINKING FAMILY
1
. Unless otherwise indicated, data on the changing structure of the American family are found in “The Changing American Family,” in
Economic Report of the President,
Council of Economic Advisers, Washington, D.C., February 2000; see also “Families and the Labor Market, 1969–1999; Analyzing the ‘Time Crunch,’ ” a report of the President’s Council of Economic Advisers, Washington, D.C., May 1999.
2
. On the increasing tendency for husbands and wives to exchange shifts of work and child care, see the National Study of the Changing Work Force, 1997 (a survey of more than 3,500 working men and women), cited in Julia Lawlor, “For Many Blue-Collar Fathers, Child Care Is Shift Work, Too,”
New York Times,
April 26, 1998, p. 11. See also Jacqueline Salmon, “A Tag-Team Approach to Wrestling with Child Care,”
Washington Post Weekly Edition,
April 10, 1998, p. 30.
3
. For evidence on this point, see Robert Putnam,
Bowling Alone
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), p. 100.
4
. Amy Wilson, “All in the Family,”
Fast Company,
March 2000, p. 72.
5
. No other household grouping changed very much over the interval. The percent of households composed of unmarried people with children increased only slightly, from 10 to 11 percent. The proportion composed of married people without children went from just under 30 percent to just over 30. See U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, P20–509, and earlier reports; and unpublished data. See also General Social Survey, cited in Tom W. Smith, “The Emerging 21st Century American Family,” National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, General Social Survey Report, no. 42, November 24, 1999.
6
. For a view that assigns most of the change in family structure to the Pill, see C. Goldin and L. Katz, “Career and Family in the Age of the Pill,”
American Economic Review,
May 2000.
7
. See Tom W. Smith, op. cit., Table 3, p. 25.
8
. Using the standard adjustment for inflation, men in the bottom fifth of income earners went from earning an average of $5,818 in 1979 to earning $3,287 in 1996, a drop of 44 percent. Men in the next-highest fifth went from $22,263 to $16,949, a drop of 24 percent; the middle fifth, from $33,133 to $27,765, a 16 percent drop; the second-to-highest fifth, from $44,102 to $40,561, a drop of 8 percent. Only men in the top fifth gained ground, going from $70,350 in 1979 to $72,893 in the late 1990s, an increase of 4 percent. (The sample represents noninstitutionalized U.S. males aged twenty-five to fifty-nine.) Tabulations are from the March 1980 and March 1997 Current Population Survey files. All wages and income statistics are converted to 1996 dollars. See Gary Burtless, “Effects of Growing Wage Disparities and Changing Family Composition on the U.S. Income Distribution,”
Center on Social and Economic Dynamics Working Paper no. 4
(July 1999), Table 2.
9
. See Burtless, op. cit.
10
. For an analysis, see Barbara H. Wootton, “Gender Differences in Occupational Employment,”
Monthly Labor Review,
vol. 120, no. 4 (1997), p. 15.
11
. Current Population Survey, op. cit.
12
. Goldin and Katz, op. cit.
13
. The judge and Mr. Young are quoted in Melody Petersen, “The Short End of Long Hours,”
New York Times,
July 18, 1998, p. B1; and in Margaret Jacobs, “Fathers Winning More Child-Custody Cases,”
Orange County Register,
July 19, 1998, p. A25.
14
. Survey data in Tom W. Smith, op. cit., Table 15, p. 38.
15
. See “Births, Marriages, Divorces, and Deaths,” historic data, National Vital Statistics Reports, National Center for Health Statistics, Washington, D.C. Note also that some people may want children but are infertile, and unwilling or unable to adopt. Delayed childbearing has increased the rate of infertility.
16
. General Social Survey, cited in Tom W. Smith, op. cit.
18
. Domestic violence is but one of the many consequences of economic stress, and it is not absolutely clear that the causal relationship runs from economic stress to violence and other forms of social deviance; the loss of a job and the social deviance may have a common origin. There is some evidence, but not conclusive, that the incidence of domestic violence increases in the wake of increases in unemployment. See generally Richard Gelles and Murray Straus,
Intimate Violence: The Causes and Consequences of Abuse in the American Family
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988); and Robert Burgess and Patricia Draper, “The Explanation of Family Violence: The Role of Biological, Behavioral, and Cultural Selection,” in Lloyd Ohlin and Michael Tonry, eds.,
Family Violence
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 59–116.
19
. Kathryn Edin, “Few Good Men,”
The American Prospect,
January 3, 2000, p. 26.
20
. Data on illegitimacy in Britain are found in “Key Population and Vital Statistics,” Her Majesty’s Office for National Statistics, London (December 1997, and subsequent series).
21
. Tom W. Smith, op. cit.
22
. National Center for Health Statistics, op. cit. Some of these data are summarized in Steven Holmes, “In Climb up the Ladder, Married Blacks Are Choosing Small Families,”
New York Times,
July 21, 1998, p. A10.
23
. But there’s still a puzzle about why the birthrate hasn’t fallen faster among unmarried women than among married women, given the large economic costs of having a baby while unmarried.
24
. U.S. Census Bureau,
Educational Attainment in the United States
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, March 1998), from Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics, Report P20-513, Table 1.
25
. “Twelfth Annual Report on Eating Patterns in America” (Port Washington, N.Y.: NPD Group, August 1997). For additional data, see
The Economist,
September 26, 1998, pp. 68–9.
27
.
New York
magazine, September 28, 1998.
28
. Quoted in Monee Fields White and Liz Enochs, “Working Women Spur Economy,”
Salt Lake Tribune,
October 26, 1999, p. C6.
29
. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, P70-62, November 1997, Table A: “Primary Child Care Arrangements Used for Preschoolers by Families with Employed Mothers: Selected Years.”
30
. General Social Survey, cited in Tom W. Smith, op. cit., Table 14.
NINE: PAYING FOR ATTENTION
1
. René Spitz, “Hospitalism: An Inquiry Into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood” (1945), reprinted in R. Emde, ed.,
The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,
vol. 12 (New York: International Universities Press, 1983), pp. 53–74.
2
. Mary Carlson et al., “Psychological and Neuroendocrinological Sequelae of Early Social Deprivation in Institutionalized Children in Romania,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
vol. 807 (1997), pp. 419–28.
3
. T. Field et al., “Tactile/Kinesthetic Stimulation Effects on Preterm Neonates,”
Pediatrics,
vol. 77 (1986), pp. 654–8. See also F. Scafidi et al., “Massage Stimulates Growth in Preterm Infants: A Replication,”
Infant Behavior and Development,
vol. 31 (1990), pp. 167–88.
4
. Lisa F. Berkman and S. Leonard Syme, “Social Networks, Host Resistance, and Mortality: A Nine-Year Follow-Up Study of Alameda County Residents,”
American Journal of Epidemiology,
vol. 109, no. 2 (1979), pp. 186–204.
5
. The study is described in John Rowe and Robert Kahne,
Successful Aging
(New York: Random House, 1998), p. 229.
6
. Teresa Seeman et al., “Behavioral and Psychosocial Predictors of Physical Performance: MacArthur Studies of Successful Aging,”
Journal of Gerontology,
vol. 50 (1995), pp. 177–83.
7
. Robert Kraut et al., “Internet Paradox: A Social Technology That Reduces Social Involvement and Psychological Well-Being,”
American Psychologist
(September 1998), pp. 1017–31.
8
. Both at the start of the study and again at the end, participants took standard tests to gauge their psychological states, and were asked to agree or disagree with statements like “I feel everything I do is an effort” or “I enjoy life.” They were also given standard questionnaires used to determine psychological health. Those who were lonelier or more depressed at the start were no more drawn to the Internet than those who were happier and more engaged.
9
. Quoted in Amy Harmon, “Sad, Lonely World Discovered in Cyberspace,”
New York Times,
August 30, 1998, p. A1.
10
. T. Field et al., “Massage Therapy for Infants of Depressed Mothers,”
Infant Behavior and Development,
vol. 19 (1996), pp. 109–14.
11
. T. E. Seeman et al., “Social Ties and Support as Modifiers of Neuroendocrine Function,”
Annals of Behavioral Medicine,
vol. 16 (1994), pp. 95–106.
12
. Quoted in Louis Uchitelle, “Gains in Employment, but Not in Productivity,”
New York Times,
March 8, 1999, Business, p. 1.
13
. Merrill Lynch is hardly the only financial-services company to provide its elite customers with extra attention. Charles Schwab, the discount broker that has made do-it-yourself stock trading on the Web its stock-in-trade, provides customers who park more than $500,000 in assets with Schwab with “personal” full-time brokers who monitor their accounts and provide ongoing advice. See Joseph Kahn, “Schwab Lands Feet First on the Net,”
New York Times,
February 10, 1999, p. C1.
14
. Quoted in Charles Gasparino, “Wall Street Has Less and Less Time for Small Investors,”
Wall Street Journal,
October 5, 1999, p. C1.
15
. Thorstein Veblen,
The Theory of the Leisure Class
(New York: Macmillan, 1899).
16
. Nancy Keates, “Coffee, Tea or Massage?,”
Wall Street Journal,
November 6, 1998, p. W1.
17
. Quoted in Laurence Zuckerman, “Airlines Coddle the High Fliers at Expense of the Coach Class,”
New York Times,
April 1, 1998, p. A1.
18
. Elizabeth Hayt, “A High Fashion Destination Worth a Detour,”
New York Times
, August 23, 1998, section 9, p. 3.
19
. Thomas J. Leonard, “Coaching Q&A: What Is Coaching All About?,” Coach U. Web site (www.coachu.com/qagrpa.htm), retrieved June 6, 2000.
20
. Quoted in Lynette Lamb, “Team Me,”
Utne Reader,
January–February 1999, p. 82.
21
. Quoted in Todd Purdum, “Where Everyone Drives, Few Deign to Park,”
New York Times,
November 28, 1999, p. A1.
22
. Natalie Angier, “Among Doctors, Pay for Women Still Lags,”
New York Times,
January 12, 1999, p. D7.
23
. Timothy Diamond,
Making Gray Gold: Narratives of Nursing Home Care
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). For a thoughtful discussion, see Deborah A. Stone, “Care As We Give It, Work As We Know It,” unpublished paper, Radcliffe Center on Public Policy, December 1998.
24
. For more on the consequences of this rule, see Deborah A. Stone, “Care and Trembling,”
The American Prospect
43, March–April 1999, p. 61.
25
. A number of studies suggest that differences in the amount, quality, and consistency of child care can have significant consequences for children later in their lives. See, for example, Ellen Peisner-Feinberg et al., “The Children of the Cost, Quality and Outcomes Study Go to School” (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, FPG Child Development Center, June 1999). See also H. Goelman and A. R. Pence, “Effects of Child Care, Family, and Individual Characteristics on Children’s Language Development: The Victoria Day Care Research Project,” in D. A. Phillips, ed.,
Quality in Child Care: What Does Research Tell Us?
(Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1987); Cheryl D. Hayes et al., eds.,
Who Cares for America’s Children? Child Care Policy for the 1990s
(Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990).
These and related studies tend to use two scales to measure the quality of care of children: The first is the Arnett Scale of Provider Sensitivity, measuring how warm, attentive, and engaged the provider is relative to how critical, threatening or punitive, and detached. See J. Arnett, “Caregivers in Day Care Centers: Does Training Matter?”
Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,
vol. 10 (1989), pp. 541–52. The second scale is the Adult Involvement Scale, which looks at the degree and kind of caregiving—from ignoring the child, to giving the child routine care (help in blowing her nose, for example), to talking with the child in order to discipline her and answering direct requests for help, to responding to the child’s questions positively but briefly, to extending and elaborating on such questions, and, finally, to engaging the child in prolonged conversation, playing interactively, and holding or hugging to provide comfort. See C. Howes and P. Stewart, “Child’s Play with Adults, Toys and Peers: An Examination of Family and Child Care Influences,”
Developmental Psychology,
vol. 12, no. 3 (1987), pp. 423–30.
26
. For more information about the study, see “Early Learning, Later Success: The Abecedarian Project” (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, February 28, 2000). As of this writing, the study has not appeared in a peer-reviewed journal.