Read The Jewish Annotated New Testament Online
Authors: Amy-Jill Levine
21
After these things Jesus showed himself again to the disciples by the Sea of Tiberias; and he showed himself in this way.
2
Gathered there together were Simon Peter, Thomas called the Twin,
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Nathanael of Cana in Galilee, the sons of Zebedee, and two others of his disciples.
3
Simon Peter said to them, “I am going fishing.” They said to him, “We will go with you.” They went out and got into the boat, but that night they caught nothing.
4
Just after daybreak, Jesus stood on the beach; but the disciples did not know that it was Jesus.
5
Jesus said to them, “Children, you have no fish, have you?” They answered him, “No.”
6
He said to them, “Cast the net to the right side of the boat, and you will find some.” So they cast it, and now they were not able to haul it in because there were so many fish.
7
That disciple whom Jesus loved said to Peter, “It is the Lord!” When Simon Peter heard that it was the Lord, he put on some clothes, for he was naked, and jumped into the sea.
8
But the other disciples came in the boat, dragging the net full of fish, for they were not far from the land, only about a hundred yards
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off.
9
When they had gone ashore, they saw a charcoal fire there, with fish on it, and bread.
10
Jesus said to them, “Bring some of the fish that you have just caught.”
11
So Simon Peter went aboard and hauled the net ashore, full of large fish, a hundred fifty-three of them; and though there were so many, the net was not torn.
12
Jesus said to them, “Come and have breakfast.” Now none of the disciples dared to ask him, “Who are you?” because they knew it was the Lord.
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Jesus came and took the bread and gave it to them, and did the same with the fish.
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This was now the third time that Jesus appeared to the disciples after he was raised from the dead.
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When they had finished breakfast, Jesus said to Simon Peter, “Simon son of John, do you love me more than these?” He said to him, “Yes, Lord; you know that I love you.” Jesus said to him, “Feed my lambs.”
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A second time he said to him, “Simon son of John, do you love me?” He said to him, “Yes, Lord; you know that I love you.” Jesus said to him, “Tend my sheep.”
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He said to him the third time, “Simon son of John, do you love me?” Peter felt hurt because he said to him the third time, “Do you love me?” And he said to him, “Lord, you know everything; you know that I love you.” Jesus said to him, “Feed my sheep.
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Very truly, I tell you, when you were younger, you used to fasten your own belt and to go wherever you wished. But when you grow old, you will stretch out your hands, and someone else will fasten a belt around you and take you where you do not wish to go.”
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(He said this to indicate the kind of death by which he would glorify God.) After this he said to him, “Follow me.”
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Peter turned and saw the disciple whom Jesus loved following them; he was the one who had reclined next to Jesus at the supper and had said, “Lord, who is it that is going to betray you?”
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When Peter saw him, he said to Jesus, “Lord, what about him?”
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Jesus said to him, “If it is my will that he remain until I come, what is that to you? Follow me!”
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So the rumor spread in the community
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that this disciple would not die. Yet Jesus did not say to him that he would not die, but, “If it is my will that he remain until I come, what is that to you?”
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24
This is the disciple who is testifying to these things and has written them, and we know that his testimony is true.
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But there are also many other things that Jesus did; if every one of them were written down, I suppose that the world itself could not contain the books that would be written.
THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
TITLE OF BOOK AND MEANING
The Acts of the Apostles (Acts) appears fifth in the canonical order of the books of the New Testament, but most scholars now see it as the second part of a two-volume work (1.1) written by the author of the third Gospel, traditionally identified as Luke. The two works (Luke-Acts) have a common literary style, narrative parallels, and thematic similarities. While the title “Acts of the Apostles” refers in general to all the apostles, the work focuses on Peter and Paul.
AUTHORSHIP
The attribution of Acts to Luke, often considered a physician and companion of Paul (Col 4.14; 2 Tim 4.11; Philem 24), first appears in the second century (Irenaeus,
Adv. Haer
. 3.1.1; 3.14.1; Tertullian,
Marc
. 4.2.2; Clement,
Paed
. 2.1.15;
Strom
. 5.12.82). The author had considerable familiarity with the Septuagint, Jewish customs and institutions such as Sabbath restrictions on travel (1.12), Greek literary traditions (Paul quotes from Greek poets in 17.28), and Roman political structures (e.g., legal proceedings in ch 24).
DATE
The Gospel of Luke probably alludes to the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple (cf. 19.41–44; 21.20–24), which places its composition after 70 CE. While a precise date is impossible to establish, Acts was most likely composed early in the second century CE.
LITERARY HISTORY
Modern scholarship has long debated the historical reliability of Acts. The author describes the writing as an orderly narrative based on careful investigation (cf. Lk 1.3). Several characters, such as the Roman proconsul Gallio (18.12) and Judean procurators Felix and Festus (ch 24), were historical figures. Other details, such as the sailing routes and nautical practices (e.g., 27.9–44), references to Roman law (ch 24), and, beginning in ch 16, the frequent use of first-person plural (“we”), may suggest that the author was present at the events narrated or had access to firsthand accounts. It is also possible, however, that these details were included to add verisimilitude to the story. Many of the deeds and words of Peter, Paul, and the other apostles cannot be confirmed, and in several instances the information presented in Acts contradicts what we know from other sources, including the letters of Paul. For instance, the result of the Jerusalem council’s decision on the admission of Gentiles to the community, including abstention from eating “whatever has been strangled” (15.20), in keeping with the Torah’s prohibitions of eating carrion (e.g., Lev 17.15), is not borne out in Paul’s letter to the Galatians (2.10), which mentions only service to “the poor” as the requirement. Whatever historical information may be present in Acts, the selection of events, their ordering, the content of the speeches, and many of the details were determined by the theological and literary interests of the author.
STRUCTURE AND CONTENTS
Acts presents an account of the expansion of the church from its origins among the small group of Jesus’ followers in Jerusalem to a movement spread throughout the Roman Empire. The narrative trajectory is summarized in the initial instructions that the resurrected Jesus imparts to his disciples: they should be his “witnesses in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth” (1.8). The action unfolds in two main units. The first, chs 1–12, focuses largely on activities that take place in Jerusalem, Judea, and Samaria. Peter, the central figure, delivers speeches, performs healings, and, as the climax of this section, baptizes the first Gentile convert, the Roman centurion Cornelius. (Philip had previously baptized an Ethiopian eunuch, 8.26–40, but he is characterized as already worshiping God in Jerusalem.) Beginning in ch 13, the focus shifts to Paul, his missionary activity in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey) and Greece, his arrest by Jewish authorities, questioning before Roman and Jewish authorities, and his journey to Rome, where he is to plead his case before the emperor. Although the author surely knew that Paul was dead, likely killed during Nero’s persecution of Jesus’ followers in 64 CE, the book concludes with Paul preaching openly in Rome.
INTERPRETATION
Scholars have long attempted to identify the genre of Acts, whether as history, biography, or novel. Considerable attention also has also been paid to ascertain its purpose: a defense of Christians in the eyes of Romans, a defense of Romans in the eyes of Christians, a defense of Paul’s memory, particularly against charges of antinomianism, an explanation or reassurance to Christians who grew anxious about the delay of Jesus’ return, and/or an attempt to harmonize diverging opinions among early Christians. While the author may have wanted to help Christians understand the Roman government as legitimate or to reassure Romans that Christians were not a threat to their authority (as in the treatment of Paul in the latter part of the book), it is also likely that the author was highly critical of certain Roman political claims, such as Rome as ruler of the world.
GUIDE TO READING
Acts shares with other early Christian writings many ideas that later become central to Christian tradition, although it presents them without the more developed argumentation such as is found Paul’s letters. Acts highlights the power of the Holy Spirit to guide and protect Christians (e.g., 19.21), the resurrection as the core proof of Jesus’ identity (e.g., 2.22–32), and the offer of salvation to all persons (10.34–35). Other themes, such as martyrdom (chs 6–7) and the sharing of possessions (2.45), find widespread acceptance in later Christian thought.
Acts paints an idealized church expanding in an orderly, harmonious fashion, from Jerusalem to Rome and from Jew to Gentile, and comprising persons who live according to a common set of values, such as the sharing of possessions and observing an agreed-upon set of ethical norms, as members of God’s people.
The book devotes considerable importance to the inclusion of Gentiles among the people of God. According to Acts, the importance of any distinction between Jew and Gentile has ceased. As Peter says, “God shows no partiality” (10.34). While the opening to Gentiles comes as a divine act (ch 10), subsequent moves in this direction stem from the rejection by Jews of the Christian preaching (13.46; 18.5–6; 28.23).
While Acts conceives all persons comprising the people of God, it creates new categories for those who believe in Jesus as resurrected Messiah and those who do not. Those who reject Jesus are excluded from God’s community and do not share in the blessings of salvation. Only those who believe can expect salvation (4.12). Acts replaces an ethnic distinction with a theological distinction that comes to define, according to Acts, the new people of God.
Aspects of Roman government and culture constitute another important element in the narrative. The Roman government is represented by its magistrates, soldiers, and legal practices, and Paul identifies himself as a Roman citizen (22.25–29), a claim not verified from Paul’s letters. Generally, Roman figures treat Christians with respect. Several Romans show sympathy with Christian figures (e.g., Lysias, 23.26–30) and a few, such as the centurion Cornelius, convert to Christianity (10.44–48). Beyond any historical reminiscence, the author may have used this largely positive portrayal of Roman power to convince Christian readers to see their religious community as a legitimate and welcomed part of the Roman world. Acts also employs language and images (Jesus as “Lord of all” [10.36]) used to justify Roman imperial power and applies such language to Jesus and the early church. Acts presents Jesus, rather than the emperor, as the true savior of the world.
Jewish elements, including prominent historical figures such as Rabbi Gamaliel, Agrippa I, Agrippa II, and institutions, such as synagogues and the Temple, occupy a prominent place throughout Acts. Acts identifies the Pharisees as those who believe in resurrection in contrast to the Sadducees who do not (23.6–10). Acts provides important information on Jewish institutions and customs of that time. The Jerusalem Temple is the site of worship and sacrifice (2.46; 3.1; 5.21; 21.26) and involves rituals of purification (21.26). Acts mentions other Jewish customs, including the taking of vows (18.18), the festivals of Passover (20.6; cf. Lk 22.1) and Shavuot (2.1), circumcision (16.3), and frequently portrays synagogues as important communal institutions, describing Jews participating in synagogue activities, such as reading and discussion of scripture on the Sabbath. It also depicts Gentiles, often referred to as God-fearers (Gk
sebomenos/phoboumenos ton theon
), engaged in Jewish religious activities, such as the Ethiopian eunuch worshiping at the Temple and reading Isaiah (8.27–28; 10.2) or the Gentiles who frequently are found in the Diaspora synagogues.