The Making of African America (39 page)

72
Morgan,
Slave Counterpoint,
425; Sylvia R. Frey, “‘The Year of Jubilee is Come': Black Christianity in the Plantation South in Post Revolution America” in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, eds.,
Religion in a Revolutionary Age
(Charlottesville VA, 1994), 94—124 and Sylvia R. Frey,
Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age
(Princeton NJ, 1991), chap. 8; Russell E. Rickey, “From Quarterly to Camp Meeting: A Reconsideration of Early American Methodism,”
MethodistHistory
23 (1985), 199—213, especially 205—6; Christine Leigh Heyrman,
Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt
(New York, 1997), 217—18.

73
Quoted in Roger Bruns, ed.,
Am I Not a Man and a Brother: The Antislavery Crusade of Revolutionary America, 1688—1788
(New York, 1977), 428; Herbert Aptheker, ed.,
A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States,
2 vols.(New York, 1951), I: 8-9.

74
Arthur Zilversmit,
The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North
(Chicago, 1967), chaps. 5—8; Gary B. Nash and Jean R. Soderlund,
Freedom by Degrees: Emancipation in Pennsylvania and Its Aftermath
(New York, 1991); Shane White,
Somewhat More Independent: The End of Slavery in New York City, 1770—1810
(Athens GA, 1991); Leslie M. Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery:African Americans in New York City,
1626—1863 (Chicago, 2003), chap. 2.

75
Ira Berlin, Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the
Antebellum
South (New York, 1974), chap.I, esp., 46—47.

76
Berlin,
Slaves Without Masters,
51—53; Gary B. Nash,
Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia's Black Community, 1720—1840
(Cambridge MA, 1988), 79-88, 99; Morgan,
Slave Counterpoint,
451—52; Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H. Rutman,
A Place in Time: Explicatus
(New York, 1984), 100.

77
Berlin,
Slaves Without Masters,
chap. 3.

78
Frey and Wood,
Come Shouting to
Zion, chaps. 4—6; Eddie S. Glaude, Jr.,
Exodus!: Religion, Race, and Nation in Early Nineteenth-Century Black America
(Chicago, 2000); Benjamin Quarles, “The Revolutionary War as a Black Declaration of Independence,” in Berlin and Hoffman, eds.,
Slavery and Freedom in the Age of the American Revolution,
283—305.

79
For the “Union Association,” see William H. Robinson, ed.,
The Proceedings of the Free, African Union Society and the African Benevolent Newport, Rhode Island, 1780—1824
(Providence RI, 1976), x-xi. Later, when many of the blacks migrated to Sierra Leone, partisan divisions were between the two largest religious factions, Methodists and Baptists. James W. Walker,
The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783—1870
(New York, 1976), 180.

80
Robinson, ed.,
Proceedings of the Free, African Union,
x—xi; White,
Somewhat More Independent,
166—71; Nash,
Forging Freedom,
75—76. One of the first matters of business of Philadelphia's Free African Society, founded in 1787, was to establish “a regular mode of procedure with respect to ... marriages.” William Douglass,
Annals of the First African Church in the United States of America
(Philadelphia, 1862), 34—42.

81
Allen, A
Collection of Spiritual Songs
quoted in Dorothy Porter, ed., Early Negro
Writing, 1760—1837
(Boston, 1971), 571; Southern,
Music of Black Americans,
84—93; Southern, ed.,
Readings in Black American Music
(New York, 1971), 52—61; “Hymnals of the Black Church,”
Journal of Interdenominational Theological Seminary
14 (1987). For the dispute over the social purposes of Allen's Hymnal, see Kenneth L. Waters, Sr., “Liturgy, Spirituality, and Polemic in the Hymnody of Richard Allen,”
The North Star
2 (1999).

82
John F. Watson, “Methodist Error” in Southern, ed.,
Readings in Black
American Music, 2nd. ed. (New York, 1983), 62—64; Mellonee V. Burnim, “Religious Music” in Burnim and Maultsby, eds.,
African American Music,
51—61.

83
Frey,
Water from the Rock,
chap. 6; Cassandra Pybus,
Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and their Global Quest for Liberty
(Boston, 2006); Simon Schama,
Rough Crossings: Britain, Slaves, and the American
Revolution (New York, 1907); Walker,
Black Loyalists,
chap. 1, esp. p. 12; Ellen G. Wilson,
The Loyal Black
(New York, 1976), chaps. 2—3; Graham R. Hodges, ed.,
The Black Loyalist Directory: African Americans in Exile after the American Revolution
(New York, 1996); Walker,
The Black Loyalists; The Book of Negroes.

84
John W. Davis, “George Liele and Andrew Bryan, Pioneer Negro Preachers,”
Journal of Negro History 3
(1918), 119—27; Pybus,
Epic Journeys;
Sidney Kaplan,
The Black Presence in the Era of theAmerican Revolution
(Washington, DC, 1973); James T. Campbell, Middle
Passages: African American Journeys to Africa, 1787
—2005 (New York, 2006), 29—30.

85
James Sidbury,
Becoming African in America: Race and Nation in the Early Black Atlantic
(New York, 2007); Michael A. Gomez,
Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South
(Chapel Hill NC, 1998).

86
Walker,
The Black Loyalists,
chap. 9, especially 207.

87
Quoted in Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (London, 1962), 308. Sierra Leone, as its leading historian notes, was shaped early by the “social distinctions and peculiarities brought from North America.” Also see Walker, The Black
Loyalists,
chap. 9, esp. 195.

88
Aptheker, ed.,
A Documentary History of the Negro People,
1: 7—8.

89
Quoted in Walker,
Black Loyalists,
339, 204—5.

90
Walker,
Black Loyalists,
esp. 251—252.

91
James Forten,
Letters from a Man of Colour, on a late Bill before the Senate of Pennsylvania
(Philadelphia, 1813), 13.

1
Michael Tadman,
Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South
(Madison WI, 1996); Walter Johnson,
Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market
(Cambridge MA, 1999); Robert H. Gudmestad,
A Troublesome Commerce: The Transportation of the Interstate Slave Trade
(Baton Rouge LA, 2003); Steven Deyle,
Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life
(New York, 2005); Edward E. Baptist, “‘Stol and Fitched Here': Enslaved Migration, Ex-Slave Narratives, and Vernacular History” in Edward E. Baptist and Stephanie M. H. Camp, eds.,
New Studies in the History of American Slavery
(Athens GA, 2006), 243-74 guide the discussion of the second great migration.

2
Tadman,
Speculators and Slaves,
chap. 1; Tadman, “The Interregional Slave Trade in the History and Myth-Making of the U.S. South” in Walter Johnson, ed.,
The Chattel Principle: Internal Slave Trades in the Americas
(New Haven CT, 2004), 123; Gudmestad,
A Troublesome Commerce,
8; also see Edward E. Baptist,
Creating an Old South: Middle Florida's Plantation Frontier before the Civil War
(Chapel Hill NC, 2002), 65—66.

3
On Georgia men, see Steven Deyle,
Carry Me Back,
chap. 2 and especially p. 63; Gudmestad, A
Troublesome Commerce,
73.

4
Deyle,
Carry Me Back,
90; Gudmestad, A
Troublesome Commerce,
62—63, 73—74, 99—100, 154—60; Carol Wilson,
Freedom at Risk: The Kidnapping of Free Blacks in America, 1780—1865
(Lexington KY, 1994), chap. 1; Gary B. Nash and Jean R. Soderlund,
Freedom By Degrees: Emancipation in Pennsylvania and Its Aftermath
(New York, 1991), 195—99.

5
Like the number of slaves who crossed the Atlantic in the first Middle Passage, the number of slaves transported to the Southern interior is also contested. Robert Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman,
Time on the Cross
(Boston, 1974), 47, estimate it at 835,000 between 1790 and 1860. Herbert G. Gutman and Richard Sutch, “The Slave Family: Protected Agent of Capitalist Masters or Victim of the Slave Trade?” in Paul A. David et al., eds.,
Reckoning with Slavery: A Critical Study in the Quantitative History of American Negro Slavery
(New York, 1976), 99, put the total at “more than a million”; Tadman,
Speculators
and
Slaves,
chap. 2 and 237—47, estimates that interregional movement averaged some 200,000 slaves each decade between 1820 and 1860 and that the total for the period between 1790 and 1820 was at least 200,000. Also see Peter McClelland and Richard Zeckhauser,
Demographic Dimensions of the New Republic: American Interregional Migration, Vital Statistics and Manumissions, 1800—1860
(New York, 1982), 159—64.

6
Tadman,
Speculators and Slaves,
12; Richard H. Steckel, “The African American Population of the United States” in Michael R. Haines and Richard H. Steckel, eds.,
A Population History of North America
(Cambridge UK, 2000), 437—53.

7
Deyle,
Carry Me Back,
144—45, 166—73; Thomas D. Russell, “Sale Day in Antebellum South Carolina: Slavery, Law, Economy, and Court-Supervised Sales,” unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1993; Russell, “A New Image of the Slave Auction: An Empirical Look at the Role of Law in Slave Sales and a Conceptual Reevaluation of Slave Property,”
Cardozo Law Review
18 (1996), 493—523.

8
Wilma A. Dunaway,
The African-American Family in Slavery and Emancipation
(Cambridge UK, 2003), 20, 42—45; quoted in
Baltimore American,
Feb. 21, 1860; Max L. Grivno, “‘There Slavery Cannot Dwell': Agriculture and Labor in Northern Maryland, 1790—1860,” unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland, 2007; T. Stephen Whitman,
The Price of Freedom: Slavery and Manumission in Baltimore and Early National Maryland
(Lexington KY, 1997), chaps. 1,4.

9
Quoted in Nicholas B. Wainwright, ed.,
A Philadelphia Perspective: The Diary of Sidney George Fisher Covering the Years 1834—1871
(Philadelphia, 1967), 188—89; George P. Rawick, comp.,
The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography,
41 vols. (Westport CT, 1972—79) ser. 1, vol. 6, 72; Gudmestad,
Troublesome Commerce,
44—45. See slaves sold for impertinence and sauciness. Deyle,
Carry Me Back,
469; Noreen T. Jones,
Born a Child of Freedom, Yet a Slave: Mechanisms of Control and Strategies of Resistance in Antebellum South Carolina
(Middleton CT, 1990), 3, 174—75.

10
Deyle,
Carry Me Back,
100—108.

11
Gudmestad,
A Troublesome Commerce,
20—21.

12
Baptist,
Creating an Old South,
69—70; Tadman,
Speculators and Slaves,
25—31; McClelland and Zeckhauser,
Demographic Dimensions,
8; Jonathan P. B. Pritchett and Herman Freudenberger, “A Peculiar Sample: The Selection of Slaves for the New Orleans Market,”
Journal of Economic History
52 (1992), 110; Steven Miller, “Plantation Labor Organization and Slave Life” in Ira Berlin and Philip D. Morgan, eds.,
Cultivation and Culture: Labor and the Shaping of Slave Life in the Americas
(Charlottesville VA, 1993), 157. Computed from the published U.S. census:
Census for 1820
(Washington DC, 1821);
Fifth Census... 1830
(Washington DC, 1832);
Sixth Census
...
1840
(Washington DC, 1841);
Seventh Census of the United States 1850
(Washington DC, 1853);
Population of the United States in 1860
(Washington DC, 1862).

13
Computed from the published U.S. census:
Censusfor1820;
Brenda E. Stevenson,
Life in Black and White: Family and Community in the Slave South
(New York, 1996), 177—78; Gudmestad, A
Troublesome Commerce,
10—11.

14
David L. Lightner, “The Interstate Slave Trade in Antislavery Politics,”
Civil War History
36 (1990), 119—36; Tadman,
Speculators and Slaves,
180—84, 212—216. On slave breeding, see Richard Sutch, “The Breeding of Slaves for Sale and the Westward Expansion of Slavery, 1830-1860” in Stanley Engerman and Eugene D. Genovese, eds.,
Race and Slavery in the Western Hemisphere: Quantitative Studies
(Princeton NJ, 1975), 173-210; Robert W. Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, “The Slave Breeding Thesis” in Fogel and Engerman, eds.,
Without
Consent or
Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery: Technical Papers,
2 vols. (New York, 1992), 2: 455-72.

15
Tadman,
Speculators and Slaves,
25-31; McClelland and Zeckhauser,
Demographic Dimensions,
8; Pritchett and Freudenberger, “A Peculiar Sample: The Selection of Slaves for the New Orleans Market,” 110; Miller, “Plantation Labor Organization and Slave Life,” 157. Computed from the published U.S. census; see note 12, above. On the sexual balance, see Baptist,
Creating the Old South,
69-70. 16 Tadman,
Speculators
and
Slaves
, 211-12; Tadman, “The Interregional Slave Trade” in Johnson, ed.,
The Chattel Principle,
117-142; Herbert G. Gutman,
The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom,
1750—1925 (New York, 1976), 145-48; Cheryll Ann Cody, ”Sale and Separation: Four Crises for Enslaved Women on the Ball Plantation, 1764-1854” in Larry Hudson, Jr.,
Working Toward Freedom: Slave Society and the Domestic Economy of the American South
(Rochester NY, 1994), 119-42.