White Bread (41 page)

food rationing, 123.
See also
bread rationing

food safety, 190–91; knowing the source of your food and, 48–49; need for new model of, 49–50; regulations, 19; resurgent anxiety about, 46–47; wrapped bread and, 43.
See also
hygiene; sanitation

Foxworthy, Jeff, 164

France, U.S. wheat shipments to, 138–39

Fredericks, Carleton, 167

Freihofer bread, 161

French bread, 1, 23, 142–43, 149

French Communists, 138–39

French Revolution, bread riot and, 5

Fresh Horizons bread, 180–81

Froman, Robert, 129

Froude, Charles, 97

Frounier, Dominique, 194

Fruitlands, 86

Gage, Frances D., 84

Gallup Poll (1940), 118

gender: boy culture during Cold War, 127; bread consumption and, 123.
See also
women

General Baking Company, 27–28

General Mills, 115–16, 120

genes.
See
eugenics genetically modified organism (GMO) labeling, 67

genetic predestination, 94–95

germs, 14, 18, 33–34, 41–43, 44, 45.
See also
bacteria; disease; food-borne illnesses; hygiene; sanitation

Gilded Age, 8

Gilgamesh, 3

Glendening, Logan, 97

global food politics, 11

gluten-free diet, 73–78

GMO labeling, 67

Going against the Grain
, 74

“Golden Age of Food Fads,” 34

Gold Medal flour, 68

“good bread”: counterculture on, 170, 171; “good society” and, 7–8, 9; Grahamism and, 86–87; paradox of efforts to produce, 195–96; social structure and, 6; traditional family values and, 84

“good food,” xi, 204n19; changing the world through, 13; counterculture of 1960s and 1970s and, 174; distribution of power and, 12; elitism and, 12–13; “good society” and, 10, 171; knowing where your food comes from and, 48–49; low-paid work and, 16; mindset of fermentation and, 194–95; national security and, 107–8; progressive era and, 22–23; utopian dreams of, 13–15, 190–96

Good Housekeeping
, 36, 43, 68, 118–19

Gouveia, Lourdes, 49

Graham, Sylvester, 15, 79–88, 89, 101

graham crackers, 79, 86

Graham flour, 86

Grahamism, 79–88, 92, 101–2, 171

Grain Damage
, 74

The Grain-Free Diet
, 74

Great Britain.
See
Britain

Great Depression, 72, 110; health of Americans during, 110

Great Harvest, 183

Greece, 139; ancient Greece, 7

Greeley, Horace, 84

Green Revolution wheat programs: in India, 158–59; Mexican production of bread, 153–55; negative effect of, 157–59; a Second, 161

Griffith, R. Marie, 93, 95

Grupo Bimbo, x, 133–34, 135, 160–61, 197–98

Guthman, Julie, 12

Haffner, George, 61

Hale, Sarah Josepha, 84

health: benefits of wheat bread, 95; counterculture's impact on awareness of, 177–79; European vs. American bread and, 144; for fighting during World War II, 110–11; social status and, 187; study on enriched bread's impact on, 124.
See also
disease; food-borne illnesses

health and discipline, dreams of, 8, 73–103, 191; and Christian physiology, 80–81; and criticism of white bread, 88–90, 97–98; and eugenics movement, 93–94; and fears over health impact of bread, 78–79; and gluten-free diet, 73–78, 100–3; and gospel of moderation, 98–100; Grahamism, 79–88; and health impact of white bread, 97–98; and overcoming genetic predestination, 94–95; and Physical Culture philosophy, 91–93; and racial vigor with white bread, 95–97

health bread, 179–81

heirloom starters, 193

Hershey, Lewis B., 110

Hess, John, 181

“hippie” counterculture, 168

hipster white trash chic, 164

history of bread: dreams of good bread, 13–15; industrial bread, 14, 23–25; social status and, 7; world, 3–6

Holsum bread advertisement, 17, 40

home economics/economists: euthenics movement, 36; scientific household management and, 32–33; siding with industrial vs. homemade bread, 62, 63

Home Health Radio
(Clark), 73

homemade bread, 1–2; counterculture of 1960s and 1970s and, 174; food purity and, 61–63; as inferior to industrial bread, 44–45; in late nineteenth century, 23; as the most hygienic, 37–38; in the 1970s, 181–82; shift to industrial bread from, 23–25; shift to store-bought bread from, 29–30

household cleanliness, 33–34

housewives: criticism of home bread making and, 61–63; enriched bread and, 117; factors involved in bread choices by, 225n59; in Rockford study on bread preferences/consumption, 122; sanitary procedures and, 45

housework, professionalization of, 33

How the Other Half Lives
(Riis), 35

humane-sustainable cattle, 10–11 Hunter, Beatrice Trum, 168

Hutchinson, Woods, 65, 95–96, 97

hygiene, 194; early twentieth-century social anxiety over, 33–34; in homemade vs. bakery bread, 37–38; professionalization of domestic, 32–33; Progressive Era reform and, 22; social reform on, 33–34, 36–37; of workers in bakeries, 39.
See also
sanitation

immigrant bakeries, 25

immigrants: bakery hygiene and, 39–40; blame for social change on, 21; food-borne illnesses associated with, 35; food safety concerns and, 47, 49; as meatpackers, 18; as unfit to serve in the military, 110; and white bread as “Americanizing,” 7

India, 158; Punjab region, 158

industrial bakers.
See
baking industry

industrial bread, xi; artisan bread and, 54–55; beginning of, 24; Bimbo Bakery (Mexico), 133–34, 153–55, 160–61; complaints about, by 1950s housewives, 122; concern for food purity and, 19; consumption of, in 1940s and 1950s, 122–23; European bread vs., 143–44; health bread, 179–81; history of, 14, 23–25; homemade bread as inferior to, 44–45; 1950s-era concerns about, 167–68; pure food and, 19, 20; relationship to industrial food, 8–9; thiamin deficiency and, 112; triumph of, 45–47; Ward Bakery, 20, 24–29; white trash and, 164–65, 187–88; whole wheat, 98–99.
See also
enriched bread; store-bought bread; white bread

industrial food and food production, 8–9; abundance and efficiency with, 59–60; American dream of, 161; American superiority in, during Cold War, 141; food access and, 159; in Japan, 144–48; Mexican Agricultural Program, 152–53; Mexican Green Revolution model for, 155–57; in Mexico, 134; negative impact of Green Revolution technology, 157–59; problems associated with, 71–72

inequalities: Green Revolution wheat production reinforcing rural, 157–58; Grupo Bimbo and, 160; spread of disease and, 82.
See also
class; social status

inspections, bakery, 37–39, 40

International Multifoods, 174

Interstate Bakeries Corporation, 28

Interstate Baking, 161

Iran, 139, 144

Iraq, 3

Israel, 3

Italy, 3

ITT Continental, 180–81

Japan, x, 136, 144–48

Jeffries, B. G., 94

Jewish bread riots, 36

Jewish rye bread, 96, 219n53 Jordan, 3

Journal of Home Economics
, 113, 121

Journal of the American Medical Association
, 43, 112

The Jungle
(Sinclair), 18, 38

Juska, Arunas, 49

Just Food
(McWilliams), 71

Kamp, David, 12

Katz, Sandor, 189

Katzen, Molly, 177

Kellogg, John Harvey, 86

Kennan, George, 127

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 168

“kitchen revolt,” 181–82

Kleen-Maid Bread, 55

Korea, 136

Kronprinz Wilhelm
(battleship), 89; “the
Kronprinz Wilhelm
incident,” 89, 90

labor organizations, 38

La Brea Bakery, 52–55, 70–71, 184, 185

Lactobacillus sanfrancisco
, 184

Ladies Home Journal
, 60

La Follette, Robert M., 27

LaLanne, Jack, 91

Lamarckian evolution, 94

la PanaderÍa Ideal, 150

Lappe, Frances Moore, 179

Latson, W. R. C., 34

Laurel's Kitchen
(Robertson/Flinders), 175, 176, 181

La Vie de France, 183

Leader, Dan, 52

Lebanon, 3

Lecture to Young Men on Chastity
(Graham), 81

Lederle, Ernst, 39

legislation: mandating enriched bread, 117; Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), 19, 67

Levant, 3

Levenstein, Harvey, 34

Lewis, Oscar, 155

Lexington Mill & Elevator, 66–67

liberals, in alternative food movement, 105–7

Lima, Ohio, 142

Listen America
(radio program), 119

literature, utopian, 59 “Little Miss Sunbeam,” 126

The Living Bread
(Merton), 168

local food, 48–49

local wheat, 83, 87

Locke, J. L., 146–47

Loewy, Raymond, 166

Long Telegram (1964) (Kennan), 127

Looking Backward
(Bellamy), 59

“lord,” origins of title, 5

Los Angeles Times
, 138, 141–42, 179

Louis XIV of France, 4

Lovell, Philip, 98

lunch program, Japanese, 145–46, 147

MacArthur, Douglas, 147

MacFadden, Bernarr, 88, 90–93, 97, 101, 171, 177

“Madeira-Mamore case,” 89, 90

malnutrition, 110, 111, 115

Mamet, David, 163

Manhattan, Kansas, x

MAP (Mexican Agricultural Program), 152–53, 157.
See also
Green Revolution wheat programs

Markel, Howard, 35

Marshall Plan, 139, 140, 142

mass-produced white bread, 8–9, 24.
See also
industrial bread

McCance, R. A., 124

McCann, Alfred, 65, 88–90, 101

McCay, Clive, 112, 113

McCollum, E. V., 99

McNamara, Robert, 167

McWilliams, James, 71

meat, 4, 6, 10, 15, 18, 19, 48, 49, 82, 83, 86, 89, 92, 96, 107, 179, 189

Meatless Mondays, 107, 117

meatpacking industry, 18, 38, 49

Meehan, Mary Anne, 118

Mellon Institute, 26

Mencken, H. L., 129

Merck, 115, 116

Merton, Thomas, 168

Mesopotamia, 3

Messersmith, George, 150

Mexican Agricultural Program (MAP), 152–53, 157.
See also
Green Revolution wheat programs

Mexican Ministry of Agriculture, 152

“Mexican Miracle,” 134, 155–58

Mexican Revolution, 148–49

Mexico: Grupo Bimbo, 133, 160–61; industrial bread made in, 153–55; “Mexican Miracle” in, 134; pressure for U.S. shipments of wheat to, 150–51; wheat production in, 152–53; white bread eaten in, 148–50

Mickler, Ernst Matthew, 187

microbiology, 42

Middle Ages, European, 4

middle class: in counterculture of 1960s and 1970s, 169; high-end bakeries for, 183–84; professionalization of domestic labor and, 32, 33; and Progressive Era, 22, 23

military draft, 110

military mobilization, civilian diet and, 108–9

milk, 6; anxieties about tainted, 18; drinking raw, 17–18; unpasteurized, 47–48

millers, 66, 67, 68, 112–13, 114

minorities, blame placed for social change on, 21

Mitchell, Helen, 113

The Modest Miracle
(film), 119

moldy bread, 42, 150

Montgomery, Alabama, 41

morality: Grahamism, 15, 81, 83–84, 85, 102; Physical Culture, 92–93; superiority of whole wheat bread, 147, 174, 178; white bread and, 64–65; white vs. dark bread and, 7, 78, 174

More Work for Mother
(Cowan), 71

Mother Earth News
, 169

Nader, Ralph, 178

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 11

National Association of Master Bakers, 61

National Day of Bread, 172

National Food Board, 99

National Research Council for Defense, 118

national security: dreams of food and, 192; food and, 107–10, 130; wheat exports and, 138.
See also
peace and security, dreams of

Native American Indians, Grahamism and, 87

nativism, 21, 23, 35

“natural food,” 86

Naturally Good Baking
(pamphlet), 174

naturalness, dream of, 190, 191, 194–95.
See also
resistance and status, dreams of

Neolithic groups, 3

New York: bakery regulation in, 39; bread consumption in, 20; cholera in, 15; cleanliness of bakeries in, 39–41; high-end bakeries in, 184; poor civilian health in, 110, 111; sliced bread in, 56; Ward Bakery in, 20–21, 25, 26–27, 35–36

New York Baking Company, 35

New York Globe
, 89

New York public school system, 129

New York State Emergency Food Commission, 113

New York State Factory Investigating Committee, 39

New York Telegram
, 97

New York Times
, 52, 107, 143, 163, 175–76, 181

Nickerson, Janet, 143–44

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 11

North Country Alternatives, 167

Northwestern Miller, 100

“no-time” bread baking, 69–70

nuclear war, bread and preparing for, 128

nutrition: deficiencies in postwar Japan, 145; research on, 111–12; and synthetic enrichment of bread, 112–14; World War II–era, 110–11.
See also
diet; enriched bread

nutritional value: USDA statement on white bread, 100; of whole wheat vs. white bread, 96–97

nutrition classes, 119–20

nutrition research, 111–12

“Nutrition Weeks,” 119–20

Ogden Standard, 41

Olbermann, Keith, 74

oligopoly, 11, 24, 61, 71, 90, 178, 191

“Open Letter to the Next Farmer-in-Chief” (Pollan), 107

Orenstein, Peggy, 175–76