White Bread (42 page)

organic fermentation, 24

Orowheat bread, 161

Osgood, Eva, 97

pageants (eugenic fitness), 93–94

pain au levain
, 11, 71, 193

Paleolithic era, 3

Paltrow, Gwyneth, 74

Panschar, William, 63

Parker, Jane, 126

Parran, Thomas, 118

patriarchy, 174, 175

Paz, Octavio, 149

peace and security, dreams of, 8, 133–61; and Bimbo Bakery, 153–55, 160–61; and changing Japanese diet, 144–48; and famine relief from U.S., 136–37; food access and, 159; impact of Mexico's Green Revolution technology on, 155–58; industrial food production politics and, 134–36; and Mexican Bimbo bread, 133–34; negative impact of Green Revolution technology model, 158–59; revolutionary bread in Mexico, 148–51; and superiority of American food/bread, 140–44; and U.S. wheat/bread exports, 138–40; and wheat production in Mexico, 152–53

peasants: demand for bread by English, 5; Mexican Agricultural Program and, 157, 158

pellagra, 111

Pepperidge Farms, 179–80, 184

Perfection Bakeries, 44

Perfection Salad
(Shapiro), 11

Perkins, Frances, 39, 40

Perkins, John H., 158

Perry County, Missouri, 23

Phillips, Cyrus, 40

Physical Culture
(magazine), 93, 95

Physical Culture philosophy, 91–93, 94

Pierpont, John, 84

Pilcher, Jeffrey, 149

Pittsburgh, 25–26

Plan Puebla, 158

Plato, 7, 78

political fermentation, dream of, 190–95

politics.
See
food politics Pollan, Michael, 107

Pont-Saint-Esprit, France, 143

poolish
, 69

poor diet: as cause of nation's problems, 34; Physical Culture philosophy on, 92; poverty and, 15, 22–23, 36–37; racial eugenicists on, 36; in tenements, 35

Popenoe, Paul, 95

popular culture, eugenic ideals in, 93–94

poverty/the poor: bakeries associated with, 37–38; cholera outbreak and, 15, 81, 82–83; diet and, 15, 22–23; diversity of diet and, 100; enriched bread and, 114–17, 118; in
How the Other Half Lives
(Riis), 35; hygienic eating/diet and, 36–37

power: English “lords” and, 5; food and distribution of, 11, 12; making “good food” accessible to others, 12; relationships between bread and, 6.
See also
food politics; food power

probiotic foods, 194

professional cyclists, 73–74

professionalism, culture of, 32

Progressive Era, 21–23; concern over food purity, 34–35; sixties counterculture food reform and, 168

propaganda: Cold War, 140–41; Soviet, 139

Providence, Rhode Island, 26

Pryor, Richard, 173

public health, 32, 34

public health officials: on bread enrichment, 112, 120–21; and cholera pandemic (1832), 81; dietnational security connection and, 108; on Japanese school lunch program, 144, 146

Punjab region, India, 158

pure food.
See
food purity

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), 19, 67

Pure Food laws, 115

Pure Foods Movement, 18–19, 68

purity and contagion, dreams of, 8, 17–49, 190–91; anxiety over germs and hygiene, 33–34; automatic baking and, 20; bread making science and, 41–43; bread panic of late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, 19–20; bread wrapping and, 43–44; concern over food safety and purity, 34–35; decrease in homemade baking and small bakeries, 44–45; domestic expertise and, 31–33; food reformers on healthy eating and, 35–37; immigrants, attitudes toward, 21; in Progressive Era, 21–23; and Pure Foods Movement, 18–19; raw milk and, 17–18; and shift to store-bought bread, 29–30; and triumph of industrial bread, 45–47; and Ward Baking Company, 20–21, 25–29

Pyler, E. J., 172

race: dreams of “real” food and, 29; “improving,” through diet, 93–95; Mexican white bread preferences and, 149.
See also
racial eugenics; racial fitness; racial hierarchies; racial purity; racism racial eugenics, 21, 36, 88, 93, 95–96

racial fitness, with white bread, 95–97

racial hierarchies, in Mexico, 149

racial purity: food purity and, 35;

whiteness of bread and, 64–66

racism, food safety concerns and, 49

rationing, food, 123

rations, bread, 3–4, 136, 137–38, 139

raw milk, 17–18

“real” food, dreams of, 29

Red Cross nutrition classes, 119

Red Scare, 14, 127

Red the cow, 17, 18, 47

refined wheat/flour, 65–66, 78, 83

regulation: food safety, 19; guidelines for bakeries, 38–39

Reid, Margaret, 110

The Republic
(Plato), 7, 78

research: on bread consumption, 121–22; on enriched bread's impact on health, 124; nutrition, 111–12

research-based meal planning, 32–33

resistance and status, dreams of, 8, 163–88; counterculture's dream of good bread, 169–71; counterculture's revolt against industrial white bread, 166–69; health breads and, 179–81; healthy eating and, 177–78; high-end bakeries, 182–85; homemade bread and, 181–82; social change by women in the kitchen, 174–76; social status connection with health and, 186–88; white trash-white bread association, 163–65

Reynolds, Horace, 129

rice, 6; beriberi and, 115; bread as substitute for, 145–47; Japanese preferring, over bread, 148

Richards, Ellen, 33, 42

Right Food
(Froude), 97

Riis, Jacob, 35

riots, bread, 4–5, 36, 139, 150

Roaring Twenties, 14

Robertson, Laurel, 175

Rockefeller Foundation, 151, 152

Rockford, Illinois, 121–22

Rohwedder, Otto, 55

Rome, ancient, 4

Ross, Delle, 97

Roszak, Theodore, 166

Routh, C. H., 42

Rudkin, Margaret, 179–80

Rumsey, Louis, 98

rural inequality, 157, 159

Russia, 3

rye bread, 96, 98, 112, 123, 142, 219n53

Saccharomyces cerevisiae
, 2, 192–93, 194

safety, food.
See
food safety

Saguaro-Juniper Ranch (Tucson, Arizona), 10–11

Salter, James, 165

sanitation, 32; bakery bread lacking, 37–38; clean bread advertising and, 40–41; food purity and, 18–19, 190–91; homemade bread and, 61–62; immigrant labor in bakeries and, 39–40; and meatpacking industry, 18, 38; wrapped bread and, 43–44.
See also
hygiene

Sara Lee, 133, 161

Saveur
, 187

Schlosser, Eric, 48

Schneider Baking Company, 126

school lunch program, Japanese, 145–46, 147

Science News Letter
, 118, 128

“Science of Oven Management” (
Ladies Home Journal)
, 60

Scientific American
, 44–45, 68

scientific baking and eating: bleached flour, 66–68; continuous-mix baking, 69–70; fermentation process, 68–69; vs. homemade bread, 61–63; science of bread making, 60–61; and sliced bread, 55–57; and streamlined loaves, 57–60; Ward Bakery, 24–25.
See also
industrial bread; techno-scientific baking

scientific control, 65, 71, 191.
See also
control and abundance, dreams of

scientific expertise, 31–32

scientific housekeeping, 32–33

scurvy, 110

Seattle's Little Bread Company, 174

Selective Service, 110

Sen, Amartya, 159

Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, 179

Servitje, Lorenzo, 134, 154, 160–61

Servitje, Roberto, 160–61

Seventh-Day Adventist Church, 86

seventies counterculture.
See
counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s

Shapiro, Laura, 11

Sheboygan, Wisconsin, 154

Sheraton, Mimi, 183–84

Sherman, H. C., 99, 100

Sherwood, R. C., 120

Shiva, Vandana, 158–59

Sickels, Emma, 32

Siebel Institute of Technology, 61

Siegmond, Warren E., 129

Sienna, 4

Silverton, Nancy, 53, 70

Simmons, Patrick, 186

Sinclair, Upton, 18, 38

Sister Corita, 166, 168

sixties counterculture.
See
counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s

sliced bread: appeal of streamlined design in, 57–60; invention of, 55–57; need for bread uniformity and, 64; softness of bread and, 57

Slim, Carlos, 160

slow fermentation, 54, 70

slow food, xi, 71

small-bakery revival, 183–84

social change: immigrants blamed for, 21; made by women in the kitchen, 174–76.
See also
social reform

social Darwinism, 88

social hierarchies.
See
class; racial hierarchies; social status

socialism, utopian, 59

social reform: counterculture movement of 1960s and 1970s, 167, 168; on dangers of poor hygiene and germs, 33–34; for healthy eating habits and hygienic eating, 36–37; in Progressive Era, 21–23

social status: bread choices and, 37, 46, 186–87; bread consumption and, 7; healthy eating and elite, 187.
See also
class

soft/softness of bread, 57, 72, 129, 160

Sokolsky, George, 147

sourdough bread/starters, 23, 53, 70, 184

South America, Grupo Bimbo in, 160–61

South Park
(TV program), 165

Soviet Union, 127, 139, 141–42

Spencer, Herbert, 59

“staff of death,” 92, 117

Standard Brands, 116, 119

status.
See
social status sterilization, forced, 93, 94.
See also
eugenics

Stern, Alexandra Minna, 35

Stiebeling, Hazel K., 120

St. Louis Bread Company, 183

Stolzenbach's bakery, 41

Stone, Lucy, 84

store-bought bread: bought in the 1940s and 1950s, 122–23; convenience and, 30; late nineteenth century, 23; shift from homemade bread to, 29–30.
See also
industrial bread

Stowe, Catherine, 31–32, 60

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 31–32, 60

streamlined aesthetic, 57–60

strength and defense, dreams of, 8; and association between individual/national strength and enriched bread, 121, 123, 125–30; and bread consumption during 1940s and 1950s, 121–23; and Canadian Bread, 113; and civilian diet during wartime, 108–9; and Cornell Bread, 113; and impact of enriched bread, 130–31; and national education campaign for enriched bread, 118–20; national security and food, 105–9; and nutritional preparedness for World War II, 110–12; and reasons for eating industrial white bread, 123–25; and success of enriched bread, 120–21; and synthetic enrichment, 112, 113–14; and War Bread, 112–13.
See also
alternative food movement

strikes, bakery, 35, 36

Stude, Henry, 100

suffrage activists, 84

sugar, 2, 6, 15, 43, 85, 89, 90, 179, 182

Sullivan, Steve, 184, 185, 186

Sullivan Street Bakery, 184

Sun-Made bread, 161

supermarkets, bakeries in, 183

Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP), 144, 145, 147

Swenerton, Hilda, 179

“swill dairies,” 18

Switzerland, 113

synthetic enrichment.
See
enriched bread

Syria, 3

Tassajara Bread Book
(Brown), 169, 181

technological progress: and Progressivism, 22; utopian thought and, 59–60.
See also
industrial bread

technology, Green Revolution, 153–55, 157–59

techno-scientific baking, 60.
See also
industrial bread; scientific baking and eating

temperance movement, 22, 80, 85

tenements, 35, 36–37, 82

thiamin, 90, 115; thiamin deficiency, 111–12

Tip-Top bread, 29, 41

toaster, first pop-up, 58

Toastmaster toaster, 58

Tom Cat Bakery (New York), 184

Tompkins, Kyla, 87

tortillas, 6, 134, 149

Tour de France, 74

Truman, Harry S., 125, 136–37, 140

Tryon, Thomas, 78

Turkey, 3, 139

typhoid, 34

typhus, 46

unbleached flour, 68, 180

United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, 159

United States: Cold War industrial food production and, 134–36; El Trigo de Rockefeller, 152–53; eugenics movement in, 93–94; famine relief from, 135, 136–37; Grupo Bimbo in, 161; history of bread consumption in, 4; history of eating and defense connection in, 108–9; humanitarian aid during World War II by, 136–40; pushing white bread in Japan, 144–48; social order of bread in, 7; superiority of consumerism and bread in, 140–44; wheat shipments to Mexico from, 150–51

“United States of Arugula” (Kamp) 12, 185

unpasteurized milk, 17–18, 47–48

upper class: Progressive Era social reform and, 23

U.S. Bureau of Chemistry, 66, 67

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 69, 99–100, 114, 122, 123, 128, 148

U.S. Department of Commerce, 120

U.S. Supreme Court, 67, 68

utopian thinking, 58–59

Vande Velde, Christian, 73–74

Van Nuys industrial park (La Brea Bakery), 52–54, 70

vegetables, 4, 15, 16, 58, 81, 83, 84, 96, 100, 107, 145, 146, 152, 179

Vegetarian Gothic
(Willet), 169–70

Vegetarian Settlement Company, 86

Veracruz, Mexico, 150

Victory Gardens, 107

Villa, Francisco, 148

vitamins: American knowledge of, 117–18; B1, 115; B2, 110; deficiencies in, 110–11; enriched bread helping Americans become conscious of, 120; in whole wheat bread, 96, 97.
See also
thiamin

Vogue
(magazine), 182

Vreeland, Diana, ix

Wahl Efficiency Institute, 61

Wahl-Heinus Institute of Fermentology, 61

Wallace, Henry, 151

Walla Walla, Washington, 15–16; artisan bread in, 52; Brasserie Four in, 51; knowing where your food comes from in, 48; liberal stereotypes in, 105–6; wine tourism in, 10