Authors: Henry Kissinger
temporarily exercises
: This status is set out in Iran’s constitution: “During the occultation of the Wali al-’Asr [the
Guardian of the Era, the Hidden Imam] (may God hasten his reappearance), the leadership of the Ummah [Muslim community] devolves upon the just and pious person, who is fully aware of the circumstances of his age, courageous, resourceful, and possessed of administrative ability, will assume the responsibilities of this office in accordance with Article 107.” Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (October 24, 1979), as amended, Section I, Article 5. In the Iranian revolution’s climactic phases, Khomeini did not discourage suggestions that he was the Mahdi returned from occultation, or at least the forerunner of this phenomenon. See Milton Viorst,
In the Shadow of the Prophet: The Struggle for the Soul of Islam
(Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2001), 192.
“
Without any doubt
”: “Address by H.E. Dr. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, President of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Before the Sixty-second Session of the United Nations General Assembly” (New York: Permanent Mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations, September 25, 2007), 10.
“
Vasalam Ala Man Ataba’al hoda
”: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to George W. Bush, May 7, 2006, Council on Foreign Relations online library; “Iran Declares War,”
New York Sun,
May 11, 2006.
“
By dressing up America’s face
”: As quoted in Arash Karami, “Ayatollah Khamenei: Nuclear Negotiations Won’t Resolve US-Iran Differences,”
Al-Monitor.com
Iran Pulse, February 17, 2014,
http://iranpulse.al-monitor.com/index.php/2014/02/3917/ayatollah-khamenei-nuclear-negotiations-wont-resolve-us-iran-differences/
.
“
When a wrestler is wrestling
”: As quoted in Akbar Ganji, “Frenemies Forever: The Real Meaning of Iran’s ‘Heroic Flexibility,’”
Foreign Affairs,
September 24, 2013,
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/139953/akbar-ganji/frenemies-forever
.
Plutonium enrichment
: Two types of material have been used to drive nuclear explosions—enriched uranium and plutonium. Because the control of a plutonium reaction is generally seen as a technically more complex task than the equivalent work required to produce an explosion using enriched uranium, most attempts to prevent a breakout capability have focused on closing the route to uranium enrichment. (Plutonium reactors are also fueled by uranium, requiring some access to uranium and familiarity with uranium-processing technology.) Iran has moved toward both a uranium-enrichment and a plutonium-production capability, both of which have been the subject of negotiations.
The process resulted in the November 2013
: This account of the negotiating record makes reference to events and proposals described in a number of sources, including the Arms Control Association, “History of Official Proposals on the Iranian Nuclear Issue,” January 2013; Lyse Doucet, “Nuclear Talks: New Approach for Iran at Almaty,” BBC.co.uk, February 28, 2013; David Feith, “How Iran Went Nuclear,”
Wall Street Journal,
March 2, 2013; Lara Jakes and Peter Leonard, “World Powers Coax Iran into Saving Nuclear Talks,”
Miami Herald,
February 27, 2013; Semira N. Nikou, “Timeline of Iran’s Nuclear Activities” (United States Institute of Peace, 2014); “Timeline: Iranian Nuclear Dispute,” Reuters, June 17, 2012; Hassan Rohani, “Beyond the Challenges Facing Iran and the IAEA Concerning the Nuclear Dossier” (speech to the Supreme Cultural Revolution Council),
Rahbord,
September 30, 2005, 7–38, FBIS-IAP20060113336001; Steve Rosen, “Did Iran Offer a ‘Grand Bargain’ in 2003?,”
American Thinker,
November 16, 2008; and Joby Warrick and Jason Rezaian, “Iran Nuclear Talks End on Upbeat Note,”
Washington Post,
February 27, 2013.
“
The reason for the emphasis
”: Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, remarks to members of the Iranian Majles (Parliament), Fars News Agency, as translated and excerpted in KGS NightWatch news report, May 26, 2014.
Administration spokesmen
: David Remnick, “Going the Distance,”
New Yorker,
January 27, 2014.
“
Today we are embarking
”: Address by Yitzhak Rabin to a joint session of the U.S. Congress, July 26, 1994, online archive of the Yitzhak Rabin Center.
Until the arrival
: Philip Bowring, “What Is ‘Asia’?,”
Far Eastern Economic Review,
February 12, 1987.
“
the basic principle of modern international relations
”: Qi Jianguo, “An Unprecedented Great Changing Situation: Understanding and Thoughts on the Global Strategic Situation and Our Country’s National Security Environment,”
Xuexi shibao [Study Times]
, January 21, 2013, trans. James A. Bellacqua and Daniel M. Hartnett (Washington, D.C.: CNA, April 2013).
In Asia’s historical diplomatic systems
: See Immanuel C. Y. Hsu,
The Rise of Modern China
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 315–17; Thant Myint-U,
Where China Meets India
(New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011), 77–78; John W. Garver,
Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), 138–40; Lucian W. Pye,
Asian Power and Politics
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), 95–99; Brotton,
History of the World in Twelve Maps,
chap. 4.
Yet in a region
: See, for example, David C. Kang,
East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 77–81.
At the apex of Japan’s society
: Kenneth B. Pyle,
Japan Rising
(New York: Public Affairs, 2007), 37.
“
Japan is the divine country
”: John W. Dower,
War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War
(New York: Pantheon, 1986), 222.
In 1590, the warrior Toyotomi Hideyoshi
: See Samuel Hawley,
The Imjin War: Japan’s Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China
(Seoul: Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, 2005).
After five years of inconclusive negotiations
: Kang,
East Asia Before the West,
1–2, 93–97.
strict diplomatic equality
: Hidemi Suganami, “Japan’s Entry into International Society,” in Bull and Watson,
Expansion of International Society,
187.
Chinese traders were permitted to operate
: Marius Jansen,
The Making of Modern Japan
(Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002), 87.
“
edict to expel foreigners
”: Suganami, “Japan’s Entry into International Society,” 186–89.
“
If your imperial majesty
”: President Millard Fillmore to the Emperor of Japan (presented by Commodore Perry on July 14, 1853), in Francis Hawks and Matthew Perry,
Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, Performed in the Years 1852, 1853, and 1854, Under the Command of Commodore M. C. Perry, United States Navy, by Order of the Government of the United States
(Washington, D.C.: A. O. P. Nicholson, 1856), 256–57.
“
most positively forbidden by the laws
”: Translation of the Japanese reply to President Fillmore’s letter, in ibid., 349–50.
“
1. By this oath
”: Meiji Charter Oath, in
Japanese Government Documents,
ed. W. W. McLaren (Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1979), 8.
“
New Order in Asia
”: Japanese memorandum delivered to the American Secretary of State Cordell Hull, December 7, 1941, as quoted in Pyle,
Japan Rising,
207.
Having established
: See, for example, Yasuhiro Nakasone, “A Critical View of
the Postwar Constitution” (1953), in
Sources of Japanese Tradition,
ed. Wm. Theodore de Bary, Carol Gluck, and Arthur E. Tiedemann (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 2:1088–89. Nakasone delivered the speech while sojourning at Harvard as a member of the International Seminar, a program for young leaders seeking exposure to an American academic environment. He argued that in the interest of “accelerating permanent friendship between Japan and the United States,” Japan’s independent defense capability should be strengthened and its relations with its American partner put on a more equal footing. When Nakasone became Prime Minister three decades later, he pursued these policies to great effect with his counterpart Ronald Reagan.
“
as Japan’s security environment
”: National Security Strategy (Provisional Translation) (Tokyo: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, December 17, 2013), 1–3. The document, adopted by Japan’s Cabinet, stated that its principles “will guide Japan’s national security policy over the next decade.”
“
the long and diversified history
”: S. Radhakrishnan, “Hinduism,” in
A Cultural History of India,
ed. A. L. Basham (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), 60–82.
“
in search of Christians and spices
”: Such was the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama’s explanation to the King of Calicut (the present-day Kozhikode, India, then a center of the global spice trade). Da Gama and his crew rejoiced at the opportunity to profit from the thriving Indian trade in spices and precious stones. They were also influenced by the legend of the lost realm of “Prester John,” a powerful Christian king believed by many medieval and early-modern Europeans to reside somewhere in Africa or Asia. See Daniel Boorstin,
The Discoverers
(New York: Vintage Books, 1985), 104–6, 176–77.
The Hindu classic
:
The Bhagavad Gita,
trans. Eknath Easwaran (Tomales, Calif.: Nilgiri Press, 2007), 82–91; Amartya Sen,
The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture, and Identity
(New York: Picador, 2005), 3–6.
Against the background of the eternal
: See Pye,
Asian Power and Politics,
137–41.
“
The conqueror shall [always]
”: Kautilya,
Arthashastra,
trans. L. N. Rangarajan (New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 1992), 6.2.35–37, p. 525.
“
If … the conqueror is superior
”: Ibid., 9.1.1, p. 588. Prussia’s Frederick the Great, on the eve of his seizure of the wealthy Austrian province of Silesia roughly two thousand years later, made a similar assessment. See
Chapter 1
.
“
The Conqueror shall think of the circle
”: Ibid., 6.2.39–40, p. 526.
“
undertake such works as would
”: Ibid., 9.1.21, p. 589.
“
make one neighboring king fight
”: Ibid., 7.6.14, 15, p. 544.
“
all states of the circle
”: See Roger Boesche,
The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His “Arthashastra”
(Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2002), 46; Kautilya,
Arthashastra,
7.13.43, 7.2.16, 9.1.1–16, pp. 526, 538, 588–89.
To be sure, Kautilya insisted
: In Kautilya’s concept, the realm of a universal conqueror was “the area extending from the Himalayas in the north to the sea in the south and a thousand
yojanas
wide from east to west”—effectively modern-day Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. Kautilya,
Arthashastra,
9.1.17, p. 589.
The
Arthashastra
advised
: See Boesche,
First Great Political Realist,
38–42, 51–54, 88–89.
“
truly radical ‘Machiavellianism’
”: Max Weber, “Politics as a Vocation,” as quoted in ibid., 7.
Whether following the
Arthashastra
’s prescriptions
: Asoka is today revered for his preaching of Buddhism and nonviolence; he adopted these only after his conquests were complete, and they served to buttress his rule.
“
grafted to the Greater Middle East
”: Robert Kaplan,
The Revenge of Geography: What the Map Tells Us About Coming Conflicts and the Battle Against Fate
(New York: Random House, 2012), 237.
“
We seem, as it were, to have conquered
”: John Robert Seeley,
The Expansion of England: Two Courses of Lectures
(London: Macmillan, 1891), 8.
“
There is not, and never was an India
”: Sir John Strachey,
India
(London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, 1888), as quoted in Ramachandra Guha,
India After Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy
(New York: Ecco, 2007), 3.
“
Whatever policy you may lay down
”: Jawaharlal Nehru, “India’s Foreign Policy” (speech delivered at the Constituent Assembly, New Delhi, December 4, 1947), in
Independence and After: A Collection of Speeches, 1946–1949
(New York: John Day, 1950), 204–5.