Zoobiquity (47 page)

50
A survey comparing
: John P. Robinson and Steven Martin, “What Do Happy People Do?”
Social Indicators Research
89 (2008): pp. 565–71.

  
1
strikes 1 in 200
: H. W. Hoek, “Incidence, Prevalence and Mortality of Anorexia Nervosa and Other Eating Disorders,”
Current Opinion in Psychiatry
19 (2006): pp. 389–94.

  
2
It’s surprisingly lethal
: Joanna Steinglass, Anne Marie Albano, H. Blair Simpson, Kenneth Carpenter, Janet Schebendach, and Evelyn Attia, “Fear of Food as a Treatment
Target: Exposure and Response Prevention for Anorexia Nervosa in an Open Series,”
International Journal of Eating Disorders
(2011), accessed March 3, 2012. doi: 10.1002/eat.20936.

  
3
Bulimia nervosa
: James I. Hudson, Eva Hiripi, Harrison G. Pope, Jr., and Ronald C. Kessler, “The Prevalence and Correlates of Eating Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication,”
Biological Psychiatry
61 (2007): pp. 348–58.

  
4
the World Health Organization has
: W. Stewart Agras,
The Oxford Handbook of Eating Disorders
, New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

  
5
In the two decades
: Ibid.

  
6
Because disordered eating
: Ibid.

  
7
Anxiety disorders are frequently
: Walter H. Kaye, Cynthia M. Bulik, Laura Thornton, Nicole Barbarich, Kim Masters, and Price Foundation Collaborative Group, “Comorbidity of Anxiety Disorders with Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa,”
The American Journal of Psychiatry
161 (2004): pp. 2215–21.

  
8
They report enjoying
: Agras,
The Oxford Handbook
.

  
9
scientists at Yale built
: Dror Hawlena and Oswald J. Schmitz, “Herbivore Physiological Response to Predation Risk and Implications for Ecosystem Nutrient Dynamics,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
107 (2010): pp. 15503–7; Emma Marris, “How Stress Shapes Ecosystems,”
Nature News
, September 21, 2010, accessed August 25, 2011.
http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100921/full/news.2010.479.html
.

10
When stressed out
: Dror Hawlena, telephone interview, September 29, 2010.

11
The threat of predation
: Dror Hawlena and Oswald J. Schmitz, “Physiological Stress as a Fundamental Mechanism Linking Predation to Ecosystem Functioning,”
American Naturalist
176 (2010): pp. 537–56.

12
Psychiatrists studying eating disorders
: Marian L. Fitzgibbon and Lisa R. Blackman, “Binge Eating Disorder and Bulimia Nervosa: Differences in the Quality and Quantity of Binge Eating Episodes,”
International Journal of Eating Disorders
27 (2000): pp. 238–43.

13
In a study of gerbils
: Tim Caro,
Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals
, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.

14
Another study, on rodents
: Ibid.

15
Scorpions have shown a similar aversion
: Ibid.

16
It’s known that light
: Masaki Yamatsuji, Tatsuhisa Yamashita, Ichiro Arii, Chiaki Taga, Noaki Tatara, and Kenji Fukui, “Season Variations in Eating Disorder Subtypes in Japan,”
International Journal of Eating Disorders
33 (2003): pp. 71–77.

17
“with its large carnivores gone”:
David Baron,
The Beast in the Garden: A Modern Parable of Man and Nature
, New York: Norton, 2004: p. 19.

18
For fifty years
: Scott Creel, John Winnie Jr., Bruce Maxwell, Ken Hamlin, and Michael Creel, “Elk Alter Habitat Selection as an Antipredator Response to Wolves,”
Ecology
86 (2005): pp. 3387–97; John W. Laundre, Lucina Hernandez, and Kelly B. Altendorf, “Wolves, Elk, and Bison: Reestablishing the ‘landscape of fear’ in Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A.,”
Canadian Journal of Zoology
79 (2001): pp. 1401–9; Geoffrey C. Trussell, Patrick J. Ewanchuk, and Mark D. Bertness, “Trait-Mediated Effects in Rocky Intertidal Food Chains: Predator Risk Cues Alter Prey Feeding Rates,”
Ecology
84 (2003): pp. 629–40; Aaron J. Wirsing and Willilam J. Ripple, “Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment: A Comparison of Shark and Wolf Research Reveals Similar Behavioral Responses by Prey,”
Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
(2010). doi: 10.1980/090226.

19
beyond squirrels pushing nuts
: Stephen B. Vander Wall,
Food Hoarding in Animals
, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.

20
Some moles create worm farms
: Ibid.

21
For example, food hoarding is often
: Mark D. Simms, Howard Dubowitz, and Moira A. Szilagyi, “Health Care Needs of Children in the Foster Care System,”
Pediatrics
105 (2000): pp. 909–18.

22
Compulsive hoarding
: Alberto Pertusa, Miguel A. Fullana, Satwant Singh, Pino Alonso, Jose M. Mechon, and David Mataix-Cols. “Compulsive Hoarding: OCD Symptom, Distinct Clinical Syndrome, or Both?”
American Journal of Psychiatry
165 (2008): pp. 1289–98.

23
OCD is linked
: Walter H. Kaye, Cynthia M. Bulik, Laura Thornton, Nicole Barbarich, Kim Masters, and Price Foundation Collaborative Group, “Comorbidity of Anxiety Disorders with Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa,”
American Journal of Psychiatry
161 (2004): pp. 2215–21.

24
“the affected animals restrict”:
Janet Treasure and John B. Owen, “Intriguing Links Between Animal Behavior and Anorexia Nervosa,”
International Journal of Eating Disorders
21 (1997): p. 307.

25
“spend more time on nonnutritive”:
Ibid.

26
“pigs, especially those”:
Ibid.

27
“led to the uncovering of recessive”:
Ibid., p. 308.

28
“an analogous genetic basis”:
Ibid.

29
Studies of twins and generations
: Ibid., pp. 307–11.

30
“People with anorexia nervosa”:
Michael Strober interview, Los Angeles, CA, February 2, 2010.

31
It strikes most often during
: Treasure and Owen, “Intriguing Links,” pp. 307–11.

32
Weaning is a vulnerable
: Ibid.; S. C. Kyriakis, and G. Andersson, “Wasting Pig Syndrome (WPS) in Weaners—Treatment with Amperozide,”
Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics
12 (1989): pp. 232–36.

33
Farmers keep an eye out
: Treasure and Owen, “Intriguing Links,” p. 308.

34
Connecting fearful states to eating
: Treasure and Owen, “Intriguing Links,” pp. 307–11; “Thin Sow Syndrome,”
ThePigSite.com
, accessed September 10, 2010.
http://www.thepigsite.com/pighealth/article/212/thin-sow-syndrome
.

35
“There is no treatment”:
“Diseases: Thin Sow Syndrome,”
PigProgress.Net
, accessed December 19, 2011.
http://www.pigprogress.net/diseases/thin-sow-syndrome-d89.html
.

36
Farmers advise making sure
: “Thin Sow Syndrome”; “Diseases: Thin Sow Syndrome.”

37
Similarly, rodent researchers found that warmer
: Robert A. Boakes, “Self-Starvation in the Rat: Running Versus Eating,”
Spanish Journal of Psychology
10 (2007): p. 256.

38
Pig farmers also recommend
: “Thin Sow Syndrome”; Treasure and Owen, “Intriguing Links,” p. 308.

39
Some eating disorders, say psychiatrists
: Christian S. Crandall, “Social Cognition of Binge Eating,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
55 (1988): pp. 588–98.

40
Today’s aspiring bulimics and anorexics
: Beverly Gonzalez, Emilia Huerta-Sanchez, Angela Ortiz-Nieves, Terannie Vazquez-Alvarez, and Christopher Kribs-Zaleta, “Am I Too Fat? Bulimia as an Epidemic,”
Journal of Mathematical Psychology
47 (2003): pp. 515–26; “Tips and Advice.” Thinspiration, accessed September 14, 2010.
http://mytaintedlife.wetpaint.com/page/Tips+and+Advice
.

41
Images of skeletal celebrities
: “Tips and Advice,” Thinspiration.

42
“the voluntary, retrograde movement”:
Kristen E. Lukas, Gloria Hamor, Mollie A. Bloomsmith, Charles L. Horton, and Terry L. Maple, “Removing Milk from Captive Gorilla Diets: The Impact on Regurgitation and Reingestion (R/R) and Other Behaviors,”
Zoo Biology
18 (1999): p. 516.

43
An affected gorilla
: Ibid., pp. 515–28.

44
“might be socially enhanced”:
Ibid., p. 526.

45
R and R is widely believed not
: Ibid., p. 516.

46
The black vultures in McKinney
: Sheryl Smith-Rodgers, “Scary Scavengers,”
Texas Parks and Wildlife
, October 2005, accessed November 9, 2010.
http://www.tpwmagazine.com/archive/2005/oct/legend/
.

47
Some caterpillars, too
: Jacqualine Bonnie Grant, “Diversification of Gut Morphology in Caterpillars Is Associated with Defensive Behavior,”
Journal of Experimental Biology
209 (2006): pp. 3018–24.

48
some animals defecate
: Caro,
Antipredator Defenses
.

  
1
When monster wildfires scorched
: Fox News, “Scorched Koala Rescued from Australia’s Wildfire Wasteland,” February 10, 2009, accessed August 25, 2011.
http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,490566,00.html
.

  
2
But six months later
: ABC News, “Sam the Bushfire Koala Dies,” August 7, 2009, accessed August 25, 2011.
http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-08-06/sam-the-bushfire-koala-dies/1381672
.

  
3
Technically, the disease
: Robin M. Bush and Karin D. E. Everett, “Molecular Evolution of the Chlamydiaceae,”
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
51 (2001): pp. 203–20; L. Pospisil and J. Canderle,
“Chlamydia
(
Chlamydiophila
)
pneumoniae
in Animals: A Review,”
Veterinary Medicine—Czech
49 (2004): pp. 129–34.

  
4
An international survey of physicians
: Dag Album and Steinar Westin, “Do Diseases Have a Prestige Hierarchy? A Survey Among Physicians and Medical Students,”
Social Science and Medicine
66 (2008): p. 182.

  
5
Among biologists, the handful of professional
: Rob Knell, telephone interview, October 21, 2009.

  
6
HIV/AIDS is the world’s
: World Health Organization, “Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks,” 2009, accessed September 30, 2011.
http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf
.

  
7
Consider the following
: Ann B. Lockhart, Peter H. Thrall, and Janis Antonovics, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Animals: Ecological and Evolutionary Implications,”
Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
71 (1996): pp. 415–71.

  
8
Sexually spread brucellosis, leptospirosis, and trichomoniasis
: G. Smith and A. P. Dobson, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Animals,”
Parasitology Today
8 (1992): pp. 159–66.

  
9
Pig litters can be decimated
: Ibid., p. 161.

10
Venereal diseases in farmed geese
: Ibid.

11
Contagious equine metritis so predictably
: APHIS Veterinary Services, “Contagious Equine Metritis,” last modified June 2005, accessed August 25, 2011.
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/animal_health/content/printable_version/fs_ahcem.pdf
.

12
Dog STDs can cause abortions
: Smith and Dobson, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” p. 161.

13
Dungeness crabs, for example, are vulnerable
: Ibid., p. 163.

14
Two-dot ladybugs
: Knell interview.

15
A postcoital housefly that lands
: Lockhart, Thrall, and Antonovics, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” p. 422.

16
Astonishingly, some of the diseases
: Ibid., p. 432; Robert J. Knell and K. Mary Webberley, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases of Insects: Distribution, Evolution, Ecology and Host Behaviour,”
Biological Review
79 (2004): pp. 557–81.

17
Indeed, STDs have been found thriving
: Lockhart, Thrall, and Antonovics, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” pp. 418, 423.

18
For example, rabbit syphilis
: Smith and Dobson, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” p. 163.

19
These nasty bacteria cause spontaneous
: University of Wisconsin–Madison School of Veterinary Medicine, “Brucellosis,” accessed October 5, 2010.
http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/pbs/zoonoses/brucellosis/brucellosisindex.html
.

20
Cattle, pigs, and dogs transmit it
: J. D. Oriel and A. H. S. Hayward, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Animals,”
British Journal of Venereal Diseases
50 (1974): p. 412.

21
brucellosis is a major public health concern
: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Brucellosis,” accessed September 15, 2011.
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/brucellosis_g.htm
.

22
(In developed countries, it has become mercifully rare)
: Ibid.

23
zookeepers in Japan
: International Society for Infectious Diseases, “Brucellosis, Zoo Animals, Human—Japan,” last modified June 25, 2001, accessed August 25, 2010.
http://www.promedmail.org/pls/otn/f?p=2400:1001:16761574736063971049::::F2400_P1001_BACK_PAGE,F2400_P1001_ARCHIVE_NUMBER,F2400_P1001_USE_ARCHIVE:1202,20010625.1203,Y
.

24
And although they’re rare
: Ibid.

25
Nowadays, “trich” is
: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Diseases Characterized by Vaginal Discharge,”
Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2010
, accessed September 15, 2011.
http://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2010/vaginal-discharge.htm
.

26
But contemporary
T. vag: Jane M. Carlton, Robert P. Hirt, Joana C. Silva, Arthur L. Delcher, Michael Schatz, Qi Zhao, Jennifer R. Wortman, et al., “Draft Genome Sequence of the Sexually Transmitted Pathogen
Trichomonas vaginalis,” Science
315 (2007): pp. 207–12.

27
Ancient, ancestral
T. vaginalis
resided:
Ibid.

28
T. tenax,
for example, thrives
: Ibid.

29
T. foetus
causes chronic diarrhea
: H. D. Stockdale, M. D. Givens, C. C. Dykstra, and B. L. Blagburn, “
Tritrichomonas foetus
Infections in Surveyed Pet Cats,”
Veterinary Parasitology
160 (2009): pp. 13–17; Lynette B. Corbeil, “Use of an Animal Model of Trichomoniasis as a Basis for Understanding This Disease in Women,”
Clinical Infectious Diseases
21 (1999): pp. S158–61.

30
T. gallinae
(or its close cousin)
: Ewan D. S. Wolff, Steven W. Salisbury, John R. Horner, and David J. Varricchio, “Common Avian Infection Plagued the Tyrant Dinosaurs,”
PLoS One
4 (2009): p. e7288.

31
Recent research on Sue
: Ibid.

32
For example, several hundred years ago
: Kristin N. Harper, Paolo S. Ocampo, Bret M. Steiner, Robert W. George, Michael S. Silverman, Shelly Bolotin, Allan Pillay, et al., “On the Origin of the Treponematoses: A Phylogenetic Approach,”
PLoS Neglected Tropical Disease
2 (2008): p. e148.

33
Before it discovered its current preference
: Ibid.

34
Sex and mother’s milk
: Beatrice H. Hahn, George M. Shaw, Kevin M. De Cock, and Paul M. Sharp, “AIDS as a Zoonosis: Scientific and Public Health Implications,”
Science
28 (2000): pp. 607–14; A. M. Amedee, N. Lacour, and M. Ratterree, “Mother-to-infant transmission of SIV via breast-feeding in rhesus macaques,”
Journal of Medical Primatology
32 (2003): pp. 187–93.

35
The theory is that, by eating the meat
: Martine Peeters, Valerie Courgnaud, Bernadette Abela, Philippe Auzel, Xavier Pourrut, Frederic Bilollet-Ruche, Severin Loul, et al., “Risk to Human Health from a Plethora of Simian Immunodeficiency Viruses in Primate Bushmeat,”
Emerging Infectious Diseases
8 (2002): pp. 451–57.

36
Hydrophobia, or fear of water
: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Rabies,” accessed September 15, 2011.
http://www.cdc.gov/rabies/
.

37
Or take
Toxoplasma gondii: Ajai Vyas, Seon-Kyeong Kim, Nicholas Giacomini, John C. Boothroyd, and Robert M. Sapolsky, “Behavioral Changes Induced by
Toxoplasma
Infection of Rodents Are Highly Specific to Aversion of Cat Odors,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
104 (2007): pp. 6442–47.

38
Humans are “dead-end” hosts for toxo
: Ibid.; J. P. Dubey,
“Toxoplasma gondii,”
in
Medical Microbiology
, 4th ed., ed. S. Baron, chapter 84. Galveston: University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 1996.

39
Exposure to toxo
: Vyas et al., “Behavioral Changes,” p. 6446.

40
other parasites have been shown
: Frederic Libersat, Antonia Delago, and Ram Gal, “Manipulation of Host Behavior by Parasitic Insects and Insect Parasites,”
Annual Review of Entomology
54 (2009): pp. 189–207; Amir H. Grosman, Arne Janssen, Elaine F. de Brito, Eduardo G. Cordeiro, Felipe Colares, Juliana Oliveira Fonseca, Eraldo R. Lima, et al., “Parasitoid Increases Survival of Its Pupae by Inducing Hosts to Fight Predators,”
PLoS One
3 (2008): p. e2276.

41
Male
Gryllodes sigillatus
crickets:
Marlene Zuk, and Leigh W. Simmons, “Reproductive Strategies of the Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae),” in
The Evolution of Mating Systems in Insects and Arachnids
, ed. Jae C. Choe and Bernard J. Crespi, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 89–109.

42
When infected with the sexually transmitted
: Knell and Webberley, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases of Insects,” p. 574.

43
Male swamp milkweed beetles infected
: Ibid., pp. 573–74.

44
The white campion flower
: Peter H. Thrall, Arjen Biere, and Janis Antonovics, “Plant Life-History and Disease Suspectibility: The Occurrence of
Ustilago violacea
on Different Species Within the Caryophyllaceae,”
Journal of Ecology
81 (1993): pp. 489–90.

45
A Duke University botanical disease ecologist
: Lockhart, Thrall, and Antonovics, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” p. 423.

46
A similar “strategy”:
Smith and Dobson, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” pp. 159–60.

47
Intriguingly, scientists and veterinarians report anecdotally
: Knell interview.

48
(The increasing incidence of STDs in people over fifty)
: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Persons Aged 50 and Older: Prevention Challenges,” accessed September 29, 2011.
http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/over50/challenges.htm
.

49
An STD of deer
: Colorado Division of Wildlife, “Wildlife Research Report—Mammals—July 2005,” accessed October 11, 2011.
http://wildlife.state.co.us/Site
CollectionDocuments/DOW/Research/Mammals/Publications/2004–2005WILDLIFERESEARCHREPORT.pdf
.

50
When
Brucella abortus
causes a cow:
Oriel and Hayward, “Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Animals,” p. 414.

51
It’s called cloacal pecking
: B. C. Sheldon, “Sexually Transmitted Disease in Birds: Occurrence and Evolutionary Significance,”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B
339 (1993): pp. 493, 496; N. B. Davies, “Polyandry, Cloaca-Pecking and Sperm Competition in Dunnocks,”
Nature
302 (1983): pp. 334–36.

52
Cloacal pecking may aid
: Ibid.

53
Rats that are prevented
: Sheldon, “Sexually Transmitted Disease in Birds,” p. 493.

54
Many birds preen
: Ibid.

55
In humans, genital scrubbing
: Allan M. Brandt,
No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880
, New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

56
A study of Cape ground squirrels
: J. Waterman, “The Adaptive Function of Masturbation in a Promiscuous African Ground Squirrel,”
PLoS One
5 (2010): p. e13060.

57
A recent study showed that simply
: Mark Schaller, Gregory E. Miller, Will M. Gervais, Sarah Yager, and Edith Chen, “Mere Visual Perception of Other People’s Disease Symptoms Facilitates a More Aggressive Immune Response,”
Psychological Science
21 (2010): 649–52.

58
For example, in males
: Matt Ridley,
The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature
, New York: Harper Perennial, 1993.

59
David Strachan was pondering
: David P. Strachan, “Hay Fever, Hygiene and Household Size,”
British Medical Journal
299 (1989): pp. 1259–60.

60
A few years later, a German scientist
: PBS, “Hygiene Hypothesis,” accessed October 4, 2011.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/10/4/l_104_07.html
.

61
Most animals have multiple sexual partners
: Ridley,
The Red Queen
.

62
“There is no imperative”:
Janis Antonovics telephone interview, September 30, 2009.

63
Timms, along with his colleagues at the Queensland
: Peter Timms telephone interview, October 5, 2009.

64
This is why, although HIV
: Randy Dotinga, “Genetic HIV Resistance Deciphered,”
Wired.com
, January 7, 2005, accessed November 9, 2010.
http://www.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2005/01/66198#ixzz13JfSSBIj
.

65
A dramatic recent example
: Mark Schoofs, “A Doctor, a Mutation and a Potential Cure for AIDS,”
Wall Street Journal
, November 7, 2008, accessed October 11, 2011.
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122602394113507555.html
.