1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Turning Points in Ancient History) (34 page)

Shuttarna II
: King of Mitanni; ruled ca. 1380 BC. Corresponded with Amarna pharaohs; daughter married Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep III.

Sinaranu
: Merchant in Ugarit; ca. 1260 BC. Sent ship(s) to Minoan Crete; exempt from taxation.

Suppiluliuma I
: Hittite king; ruled ca. 1350–1322 BC. Powerful king; expanded Hittite holdings throughout much of Anatolia and down into northern Syria. Corresponded with Egyptian queen who requested one of his sons as her husband.

Suppiluliuma II
: Last Hittite king; ruled ca. 1207 BC onward. Fought several naval battles and invaded Cyprus during his reign.

Tarkhundaradu
: King of Arzawa, in southwestern Anatolia; ruled ca. 1360 BC. Corresponded with Amarna pharaohs; daughter married Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep III.

Thutmose I
: Pharaoh, Eighteenth Dynasty; ruled 1524–1518 BC. Father of Hatshepsut and Thutmose II.

Thutmose II
: Pharaoh, Eighteenth Dynasty; ruled 1518–1504 BC. Half brother and husband of Hatshepshut; father of Thutmose III.

Thutmose III
: Pharaoh, Eighteenth Dynasty; ruled 1479–1450 BC. One of the most powerful Egyptian pharaohs; fought the battle of Megiddo during the first year of his reign.

Tiyi
: Egyptian queen, eighteenth Dynasty; ruled ca. 1375 BC. Wife of Amenhotep III; mother of Akhenaten.

Tudhaliya I/II
: Hittite king; ruled ca. 1430 BC. Put down the Assuwan Rebellion, dedicating Mycenaean sword(s) at Hattusa afterward.

Tudhaliya IV
: Hittite king; ruled 1237–1209 BC. Responsible for the sanctuary at Yazlikaya, near Hattusa.

Tukulti-Ninurta I
: King of Assyria; ruled 1243–1207 BC.

Tushratta
: King of Mitanni; ruled ca. 1360 BC. Son of Shuttarna II; corresponded with Amarna pharaohs; daughter married Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep III.

Tutankhamen
: Pharaoh, Eighteenth Dynasty; ruled 1336–1327 BC. Famous boy king who died young, with fabulous wealth placed in his tomb.

Twosret
: Egyptian queen, last ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty; widow of Pharaoh Seti II; known to have ruled 1187–1185 BC.

Zannanza
: Hittite prince, son of Suppiluliuma I; lived ca. 1324 BC; promised in marriage to widowed Egyptian queen but assassinated while en route to Egypt.

Zimri-Lim
: King of Mari in what is now modern Syria; ruled 1776–1758 BC. Contemporary of Hammurabi of Babylon and author of some of the “Mari Letters,” which give insight into life in Mesopotamia during the eighteenth century BC.

NOTES

P
REFACE

1
. In this, I agree with Jennings 2011, who has written recently about globalizations and the ancient world. See also previously Sherratt 2003, in an article published a decade ago before the correlations became even more vivid, and now the MA thesis written under my direction by Katie Paul (2011).

2
. Diamond 2005; see previously the volume by Tainter 1988 and the edited volume by Yoffee and Cowgill 1988; also discussions in Killebrew 2005: 33–34; Liverani 2009; Middleton 2010: 18–19, 24, 53; and now Middleton 2012; Butzer 2012; Butzer and Endfield 2012. On the rise and fall of empires, particularly from a world-systems viewpoint, which has engendered much discussion, see Frank 1993; Frank and Gillis 1993; Frank and Thompson 2005. In addition, a conference was recently held in Jerusalem (December 2012) entitled “Analyzing Collapse: Destruction, Abandonment and Memory” (
http://www.collapse.huji.ac.il/the-schedule
), but the proceedings have not yet been published.

3
. Bell 2012: 180.

4
. Bell 2012: 180–81.

5
. Sherratt 2003: 53–54. See now also Singer 2012.

6
. Braudel 2001: 114.

7
. See Mallowan 1976; McCall 2001; Trumpler 2001.

P
ROLOGUE

1
. Roberts 2008: 5 notes that Emmanuel de Rougé was the first to coin this term, “peuples de la mer,” in a publication dating to 1867; see also Dothan and Dothan 1992: 23–24; Roberts 2009; Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 1.

2
. See, for instance, the recent discussions in Killebrew 2005, Yasur-Landau 2010a, and Singer 2012.

3
. Kitchen 1982: 238–39; cf. Monroe 2009: 33–34 and n. 28. Some Egyptologists put the eighth year of Ramses III slightly earlier (1186 BC) or slightly later (1175 BC), since the dates for the ancient Egyptian pharaohs and their years of rule are not completely certain but rather are approximate and are often adjusted according to the whims and desire of individual archaeologists and historians; here the years of Ramses’s rule are taken to be 1184–1153 BC.

4
. Raban and Stieglitz 1991; Cifola 1994; Wachsmann 1998: 163–97; Barako 2001, 2003a, 2003b; Yasur-Landau 2003a; Yasur-Landau 2010a: 102–21, 171–86, 336–42; Demand 2011: 201–3.

5
. Following Edgerton and Wilson 1936: pl. 46; revised trans., Wilson 1969: 262–63; see also Dothan, T. 1982: 5–13, with illustrations.

6
.
See now the compilation of all the Egyptian and other primary sources mentioning the various Sea Peoples, from the time of Amenhotep III in the Eighteenth Dynasty through the period of Ramses IX in the Twentieth Dynasty and beyond, by Adams and Cohen (2013) in Killebrew and Lehmann (eds.) 2013: 645–64 and tables 1–2.

7
. Roberts 2008: 1–8; Sandars 1985: 117–37, 157–77; Vagnetti 2000; Cline and O’Connor 2003; Van De Mieroop 2007: 241–43; Halpern 2006–7; Middleton 2010: 83; Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 8–11; Emanuel 2013: 14–27. See also additional references below regarding the pottery and other material culture remains.

8
. See discussion in Cline and O’Connor 2003; also Sandars 1985: 50, 133 and now Emanuel 2013: 14–27. Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 7–8 note that the Lukka and Danuna are also mentioned in earlier Egyptian inscriptions, from the time of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten; see tables 1–2 and the appendix by Adams and Cohen 2013, as well as Artzy 2013: 329–32, in the volume edited by Killebrew and Lehmann.

9
. See Amos 9:7 and Jer. 47:4, where Crete is referred to by one of its ancient names, Caphtor. See now Hitchcock in press.

10
. Roberts 2008: 1–3; Dothan and Dothan 1992: 13–28. See also Finkelstein 2000: 159–61 and Finkelstein 2007: 517 for lucid descriptions of how the early biblical archaeologists such as Albright correlated the Peleset and the Philistines; Dothan, T. 1982, Killebrew 2005: 206–234, and Yasur-Landau 2010a: 2–3, 216–81 on the material remains usually identified as Philistine; and now the most recent, and complex, discussion and definition of the Philistines by Maeir, Hitchcock, and Horwitz 2013; Hitchcock and Maeir 2013; also the related discussions by Hitchcock 2011 and Stockhammer 2013.

11
. See, e.g., Cifola 1991; Wachsmann 1998; Drews 2000; Yasur-Landau 2010b, 2012b; Bouzek 2011.

12
. Breasted 1930: x–xi. See now the biography of Breasted by Abt (2011). As Abt notes on p. 230, Rockefeller secretly authorized an additional fifty thousand dollars, should Breasted need it, but did not inform him of that.

13
. See, e.g., Raban and Stieglitz 1991.

14
. Following Edgerton and Wilson 1936: pl. 46; revised trans., Wilson 1969: 262–63.

15
. Following Breasted 1906 (reprinted 2001) 4:201; Sandars 1985: 133. See now Zwickel 2012.

16
. See most recently Kahn 2012, with many further references.

17
. Following Edel 1961; see Bakry 1973.

18
. Breasted 1906 (2001) 3:253.

19
. Following Breasted 1906 (2001) 3:241, 243, 249.

20
. See discussion in Sandars 1985: 105–15; Cline and O’Connor 2003; Halpern 2006–7.

21
.
http://www.livescience.com/22267-severed-hands-ancient-egypt-palace.html
and
http://www.livescience.com/22266-grisly-ancient-practice-gold-of-valor.html
(last accessed August 15, 2012).

22
. Following Edgerton and Wilson 1936: pls. 37–39.

23
. Ben Dor Evian 2011: 11–22.

24
. RS 20.238 (
Ugaritica
5.24); translation following Beckman 1996a: 27; original publication in Nougayrol et al. 1968: 87–89. See also Sandars 1985: 142–43; Yon 1992: 116, 119; Lebrun 1995: 86; Huehnergard 1999: 376–77; Singer 1999: 720–21; Bryce 2005:
333 (with incorrect RS tablet number). The precise interpretation of this letter is a matter of scholarly debate, for it is not clear whether it is actually a request for assistance or even what the main point of the letter might have been.

25
. Schaeffer 1962: 31–37; also Nougayrol et al. 1968: 87–89; Sandars 1985: 142–43; Drews 1993: 13–14.

26
. See, e.g., discussions in Sandars 1985; Drews 1993; Cifola 1994; and the papers in conference volumes edited by Ward and Joukowsky (1992) and by Oren (1997). But see already a protest to the contrary in Raban and Stieglitz 1991 and now the papers in Killebrew and Lehmann 2013.

27
. See, e.g., Monroe 2009; Yasur-Landau 2010a; and the papers in the conference volumes edited by Bachhuber and Roberts (2009), Galil et al. (2012), and Killebrew and Lehmann (2013); also the brief summation of the situation in Hitchcock and Maeir 2013 and the synopsis in Strobel 2013.

28
. Bryce 2012: 13.

29
. Roberts 2008: 1–19. See also discussion in Roberts 2009; Drews 1992: 21–24; Drews 1993: 48–72; Silberman 1998; Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 1–2.

C
HAPTER
O
NE

1
. Cline 1995b, with references; see, most recently, Cline, Yasur-Landau, and Goshen 2011, also with references.

2
. See, e.g., Bietak 1996, 2005; now also Bietak, Marinatos, and Palyvou 2007.

3
. See, most recently, Kamrin 2013.

4
. Oren 1997.

5
. Wente 2003a: 69–71.

6
. Translation following Pritchard 1969: 554–55; Habachi 1972: 37, 49; Redford, D. B. 1992: 120; Redford, D. B. 1997: 14.

7
. E.g., Bietak 1996: 80.

8
. Heimpel 2003: 3–4.

9
. Dalley 1984: 89–93, esp. 91–92.

10
. For such requests, at Mari and elsewhere, see Cline 1995a: 150; previously Zaccagnini 1983: 250–54; Liverani 1990: 227–29. For contacts specifically between the Minoans and Mesopotamia, see Heltzer 1989 and now also Sørensen 2009; previously also Cline 1994: 24–30 on the larger question of contacts between the Aegean and Mesopotamia.

11
. See items listed in Cline 1994: 126–28 (D.3–12).

12
. Translation following Durard 1983: 454–55; see also Cline 1994: 127 (D.7).

13
. See discussions in Cline 1994, 1995a, 1999a, 2007a, and 2010, with further references.

14
. See Cline 1994: 126 (D.2), with previous references; also Heltzer 1989.

15
. Evans 1921–35.

16
. Momigliano 2009.

17
. Numerous books have been published on the Minoans and/or various aspects of their society; see, for example, Castleden 1993 and Fitton 2002; also most recently, the specific articles found in Cline (ed.) 2010.

18
. On the Khyan lid, see Cline 1994: 210 (no. 680) with additional references.

19
. On the Thutmose III vase, see Cline 1994: 217 (no. 742) with additional references.

20
. Cline 1999a: 129–30, with earlier references.

21
.
Pendlebury 1930. On Pendlebury himself, see now Grundon 2007. Pendlebury’s original book has now been replaced by a recent study in two volumes; see Phillips 2008.

22
. As previously noted in Cline and Cline 1991.

23
. Panagiotopoulos 2006: 379, 392–93.

24
. Translation following Strange 1980: 45–46. See also Wachsmann 1987: 35–37, 94; Cline 1994: 109–10 (A.12) with additional information and references; Rehak 1998; Panagiotopoulos 2006: 382–83.

25
. Troy 2006: 146–50.

26
. Panagiotopoulos 2006: 379–80.

27
. Panagiotopoulos 2006: 380–87.