1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Turning Points in Ancient History) (38 page)

15
. See Carpenter 1968.

16
. See discussion in Drews 1992: 14–16 and Drews 1993: 77–84; but see now also Drake 2012, which may breathe new life into Carpenter’s theory, but from a different aspect. For a recent reexamination of the impact of the end of the Bronze Age on the population and trade in Iron Age Greece, see Murray 2013 as well as Enverova 2012.

17
. See Singer 1999: 661–62; Demand 2011: 195; Kahn 2012: 262–63.

18
. Hittite text KUB 21.38; translation following Singer 1999: 715; see also Demand 2011: 195.

19
. Egyptian text KRI VI 5, 3; translation following Singer 1999: 707–8; see also Hoffner 1992: 49; Bryce 2005: 331; now Kaniewski et al. 2010: 213.

20
. Hittite text KBo 2810; translation following Singer 1999: 717–18.

21
. RS 20.212; translation following Monroe 2009: 83; McGeough 2007: 331–32; see previously Nougayrol et al. 1968: 105–7, 731; also Hoffner 1992: 49; Singer 1999: 716–17, with further references; Bryce 2005: 331–32; Kaniewski et al. 2010: 213.

22
. RS 26.158; discussed by Nougayrol et al. 1968: 731–33; see Lebrun 1995: 86; Singer 1999: 717 n. 381.

23
. The version of the letter found had been translated into Ugaritic: KTU 2.39/RS 18.038; Singer 1999: 707–8, 717; Pardee 2003: 94–95. On initial comments, see Nougayrol et al. 1968: 722. See, most recently, Kaniewski et al. 2010: 213.

24
. Singer 1999: 717.

25
. Ugarit text RS 34.152; Bordreuil 1991: 84–86; translation following Cohen and Singer 2006: 135. See Cohen and Singer 2006: 123, 134–35, with reference to the earlier primary publication by Lackenbacher 1995a; see also Singer 1999: 719, 727; Singer 2000: 24; and, most recently, Kaniewski et al. 2010: 213.

26
. On the letter from the House of Urtenu (RS 94.2002+2003), see Singer 1999: 711–12; also Hoffner 1992: 49.

27
. RS 18.147; translation following Pardee 2003: 97. The original letter, with this statement, has not been found, but is quoted verbatim in this letter sent in reply.

28
. KTU 2.38/RS 18.031; translation following Monroe 2009: 98 and Pardee 2003: 93–94; see also Singer 1999: 672–73, 716, with earlier references.

29
. See, e.g., Carpenter 1968; also Shrimpton 1987; Drews 1992; Drews 1993: 58; most recently Dickinson 2006: 54–56; Middleton 2010: 36–38; Demand 2011: 197–98; Kahn 2012: 262–63; Drake 2012.

30
. See, e.g., Weiss 2012.

31
. See Kaniewski et al. 2010 and now Kaniewski, Van Campo, and Weiss 2012; also Kaniewski et al. 2013.

32
. Kaniewski et al. 2010: 207. Other studies have previously utilized ice cores and sediment cores; see, e.g., Rohling et al. 2009 and also others cited in Drake 2012.

33
. Kaniewski et al. 2013.

34
. Kaniewski et al. 2013: 6.

35
.
Kaniewski et al. 2013: 9.

36
. Drake 2012: 1862–65.

37
. Drake 2012: 1868; he says specifically, “Bayesian change-point analysis suggests that the change occurred before 1250–1197 BCE based on the high posterior probabilities from dinocyst/formaniferal records.”

38
. Drake 2012: 1862, 1866, 1868.

39
. See the press release at
http://www.imra.org.il/story.php3?id=62135
and the official publication by Langgut, Finkelstein, and Litt 2013. There may have been a similar dry period in Egypt at approximately this same time; see Bernhardt, Horton, and Stanley 2012.

40
. Drake 2012: 1866, 1868.

41
. Carpenter 1968: 53; see also previously Andronikos 1954 and now Drake 2012: 1867.

42
. Zuckerman 2007a: 25–26.

43
. Zuckerman 2007a: 26. But see now Ben-Tor 2013, who disagrees.

44
. Bell 2012: 180.

45
. See discussions in Carpenter 1968: 40–53; Drews 1993: 62–65; Dickinson 2006: 44–45; Middleton 2010: 41–45.

46
. Carpenter 1968: 52–53; Sandars 1985: 184–86.

47
. See, most recently, Murray 2013.

48
. Singer 1999: 733; Monroe 2009: 361–63; both cited and quoted in Bell 2006: 1.

49
. RS L 1 (
Ugaritica
5.23); translation following Singer 1999: 728 and Bryce 2005: 334; see also Sandars 1985: 142–43 and the original publication in Nougayrol et al. 1968: 85–86; see also Yon 1992: 119. Note that van Soldt 1999: 33 n. 40 says that this text was actually purchased on the antiquities market.

50
. RS 20.18 (
Ugaritica
5.22), following the translation quoted in Bryce 2005: 334 and the discussion in Singer 1999: 721; see also Sandars 1985: 142 and the original publication in Nougayrol et al. 1968: 83–85.

51
. RS 88.2009; publication by Malbran-Labat in Yon and Arnaud 2001: 249–50; further discussion in Singer 1999: 729.

52
. RS 19.011; translation following Singer 1999: 726.

53
. Singer 1999: 730.

54
. See specific listing of hoard locations in Singer 1999: 731.

55
. Singer 1999: 733.

56
. RS 34.137; see Monroe 2009: 147.

57
. Sherratt 1998: 294.

58
. Sherratt 1998: 307; see also related discussion in Middleton 2010: 32–36.

59
. Kilian 1990: 467.

60
. Artzy 1998. See now also Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 12 and Artzy 2013 in the volume edited by Killebrew and Lehmann.

61
. Bell 2006: 112.

62
. Routledge and McGeough 2009: 22, citing also Artzy 1998 and Liverani 2003.

63
. Routledge and McGeough 2009: 22, 29.

64
. Muhly 1992: 10, 19.

65
. Liverani 1995: 114–15.

66
. RS 34.129; Bordreuil 1991: 38–39; see Yon 1992: 116; Singer 1999: 722, 728, with earlier references; also Sandars 1985: 142; Singer 2000: 24; Strobel 2013: 511.

67
. See Singer 2000: 27, citing Hoffner 1992: 48–51.

68
.
Yasur-Landau 2003a; Yasur-Landau 2010a: 114–18; Yasur-Landau 2012b. See now also Singer 2012 and, contra, Strobel 2013: 512–13.

69
. Genz 2013: 477.

70
. Kaniewski et al. 2011.

71
. Kaniewski et al. 2011: 1.

72
. Kaniewski et al. 2011: 4.

73
. Kaniewski et al. 2011: 4.

74
. Harrison 2009, 2010; Hawkins 2009, 2011; Yasur-Landau 2010a: 162–63; Bryce 2012: 128–29; Singer 2012; Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 11. See also previously Janeway 2006–7 on Ta’yinat and the Aegean.

75
. Yasur-Landau 2003a; see also Yasur-Landau 2003b, 2003c, and 2010a with previous references; Bauer 1998; Barako 2000, 2001; Gilboa 2005; Ben-Shlomo et al. 2008; Maeir, Hitchcock, and Horwitz 2013.

76
. See now discussions by Demand 2011: 210–12, Stern 2012, Artzy 2013, and Strobel 2013: 526–27. See also Gilboa 1998, 2005, and 2006–7, with further bibliography; Dothan, T. 1982: 3–4; Dever 1992: 102–3; Stern 1994, 1998, 2000; Cline and O’Connor 2003, esp. 112–16, 138; Killebrew 2005: 204–5; Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 13; Barakao 2013; Sharon and Gilboa 2013; Mountjoy 2013; Killebrew 2013; Lehmann 2013; Sherratt 2013. Zertal’s claim to have found a site associated with the Shardana near Megiddo in Israel has been thoroughly refuted by Finkelstein; see Zertal 2002 and Finkelstein 2002. For a translation of “The Report of Wenamun,” see Wente 2003b.

77
. Bell 2006: 110–11.

78
. Finkelstein 2000: 165; see also similar statements in Finkelstein 1998 and see now Finkelstein 2007. Weinstein 1992: 147 had earlier proposed a similar scenario, in which he saw the collapse of the Egyptian empire in Canaan as taking place in two phases, the first during the time of Ramses III and the second during the time of Ramses VI. See now also Yasur-Landau 2007: 612–13, 616 and Yasur-Landau 2010a: 340–41, for similar conclusions.

79
. See Killebrew 2005: 230–31 for a summation of previous views.

80
. Yasur-Landau 2003a; see now also discussion in Yasur-Landau 2010a: 335–45; Yasur-Landau 2012b; Bryce 2012: 33; Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 17.

81
. Yasur-Landau, personal communication, July 2012.

82
. Yasur-Landau 2012a: 193–94; see also now Yasur-Landau 2012b and previously Yasur-Landau 2007: 615–16.

83
. Yasur-Landau 2012a: 195.

84
. Hitchcock and Maeir 2013: 51–56, esp. 53; also Maeir, Hitchcock, and Horwitz 2013.

85
. See again Hitchcock and Maeir 2013: 51–56, esp. 53; also Maeir, Hitchcock, and Horwitz 2013.

86
. See also the relevant discussion in Strobel 2013: 525–26.

87
. Sandars 1985: 11, 19. Apart from Sandars, who was considered the expert on the topic, only a few other authors have attempted to write books specifically on the Sea Peoples and the collapse of the Bronze Age, including Nibbi 1975 and Robbins 2003. See now, however, Roberts’s 2008 dissertation, which has the same title as Nibbi’s earlier book.

88
. Sandars 1985: 11.

89
. Demand 2011: 193, citing Renfrew 1979.

90
. See, e.g., Lorenz 1969, 1972. See now Yasur-Landau 2010a: 334, who (independently) also invokes the butterfly metaphor in connection with these events at the end of the Late Bronze Age.

91
. Renfrew 1979: 482–87.

92
.
Diamond 2005; see now also Middleton 2010 and 2012, as well as previously the volume by Tainter (1988) and the edited volume by Yoffee and Cowgill (1988), besides the additional references in n. 2 to the preface, above.

93
. Drews 1993: 85–90, esp. 88; see also Deger-Jalkotzy 2008: 391.

94
. See the brief discussion by Dever 1992: 106–7 of the systems collapse that he sees occurring in Canaan at this time. See also Middleton 2010: 118–21 on the many contributing causes in the Aegean and now Drake 2012: 1866–68.

95
. Liverani 1987: 69; also Drews 1993: 86 and Monroe 2009: 293, both citing Liverani.

96
. Liverani 1987: 69; see now Monroe 2009: 292–96 for a critique of Liverani’s views.

97
. Monroe 2009: 294–96.

98
. Monroe 2009: 297.

99
. Monroe 2009: 297.

100
. Monroe 2009: 297.

101
. Drake 2012: 1866–68; Kaniewski et al. 2013.

102
. Drews 1993; see my own review of Drews’s book: Cline 1997b.

103
. See now the recent discussion regarding collapse and the potential reasons for such in Middleton 2012.

104
. Johnson 2007: 3–5.

105
. Bell 2006: 14–15.

106
. Johnson 2007: 13.

107
. Johnson 2007: 13–16.

108
. Johnson 2007: 14–15; Sherratt 2003: 53–54.

109
. Johnson 2007: 15.

110
. Johnson 2007: 17.

111
. Bell 2006: 15, citing Dark 1998: 65, 106, and 120.

112
. Dark 1998: 120.

113
. Dark 1998: 120–21.

114
. Bell 2006: 15. See now also Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 16–17.

115
. See most recently Langgut, Finkelstein, and Litt 2013: 166.

E
PILOGUE

1
. See now the dissertation by Murray 2013.

2
. Davis 2010: 687.

3
. Maran 2009: 242.

4
. Cf. Millard 1995: 122–24; Bryce 2012: 56–57; Millard 2012; Lemaire 2012; Killebrew and Lehmann 2013: 5–6.

5
. Van De Mieroop 2007: 252–53.

6
. Sherratt 2003: 53–54; Bryce 2012: 195.

7
. See the volumes edited by Schwartz and Nichols (2006) and McAnany and Yoffee (2010), at least partially in response to Diamond’s 2005 book. A conference on this topic was recently held at Southern Illinois University in March 2013: “Beyond Collapse: Archaeological Perspectives on Resilience, Revitalization & Reorganization in Complex Societies.”

8
. Dever 1992: 108.

9
. Monroe 2009: 292.

10
. Cho and Appelbaum 2008, A1.

BIBLIOGRAPHY